Corporate Governance Mechanism Essay

Executive SummaryThis piece of music go out reviews the extent to which corporal g everyplacenance acts as competent dig to cling to investors against somatic trick, thus contributing to summarize the literatures on consumption of collective governance on proscribeing occurrence of collective fraud. In a to a greater extent recent study, embodied fraud is part of shekels economic consumption through right(prenominal) the constabulary and standards. Whereas, the activities cover by the limits hire counsel ( much(prenominal) as income smoothing and big bath) and germinal scoreing (or window dressing) normally run in spite of appearance the regulations. In this regard, somatic governance mechanism, particularly effective get alongs, analyze missions, and examineors, decrease the likelihood of collective fraud occurs. At very survive contemplation, vigilant structure within corporation as guardianship stakeholders interests with charge up in ethics and valua tes leave liable(predicate) stop niggardly executives to take personal advantages.Keywords bodied fraud, sugar concern, bodily governance, control hop on intensity, inspect committee effectiveness and scrutiniseor effectiveness.1. IntroductionThere atomic hail 18 a digit of legal cases involving the accounting manipulation in leading companies in the United States of America (USA) and in any case new(prenominal) countries, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as Enron and WorldCom in USA, and HIH Insurance and One.Tel in Australia. These withdraw led investors, regulators, and academics to focus on up(a) dimension of corporate governance to unveil that unethical m hotshottary coverage practice. Scholars commonly attribute that poor corporate governance in such companies caused their earnings manipulation. For instance, Lavelle (2002) asserts that Enrons bankruptcy was caused by the audit committees lack of liberty, which determined from poor governance, which is part o f corporate governance mechanism.This paper will reviews the extent to which corporate governance acts as efficient tool to protect investors against corporate fraud, thus contributing to summarize the literatures on occasion of corporate governance on preventing occurrence of corporate fraud. In addition, from the possible point of view, this paper is expected to provide information on how board and audit committee, meeter and regulator indicate and anticipate which faithfuls corporate governance mechanism that cause the likelihood to fail to prevent commit corporate fraud and loose stakeholders.In general discussion, corporate governance mechanism assures a crucial part in amend the efficiency of capital trade through its impact on corporate operating efficiency and effectiveness, sustainable growth, and integrity and quality of fiscal report. easy thenar Committee (1999) asserts good governance promotes relationship of accountability among primeval corporation participa nts to enhance corporate performance.This mechanism holds management accountable to the board and the board accountable to rakeholders. The key element of board oversight is functional with corporation management to achieve corporate legal and ethical respectfulness. board oversight mechanism enkindle be taken in come in to deter fraud, anticipate financial risk, and promote high quality, accurate, and timely apocalypse to the board, to the public market and to the sh beholders.This paper is organized as follows. In the beside section, it will be presented the literature review regarding the corporate fraud and earnings management. It is continued by discussing the effectiveness of board oversight and audit committee, case of away meeter and closing thoughts at curbing fraud.2. phoney and cabbage guidanceIn this section, it will be distinguished between corporate frauds from earnings management. Existing literatures seem no clear agreement on differentiating both thos e two event in corporate report.2.1 What is bodily Fraud?In the beginning of 2000s, US investors has been hit by intentionally bull of financial report in the biggest and prominent public lodge. The companies such as Enron, Worldcom, HIH Insurance and One.Tel, to name but a few, has perpetrated and resulted a monumental losses for the investing public. For instance, Enron that recorded as the seventh largest corporation by its market capitalization in US, averaging $90 per share and worth US$70 billion in 2000, was suddenly adjournd in late 2001. Morrison (2004) asserts that the cause of the collapse is the largest corporate fraud and audit failure. Then, it can be understood that the capacious corporate fraud caused by fallacious financial reportage have contributed to a very sharp decline in the US stock market. some(prenominal) of these corporate scandals take on such as action of account manipulation, earnings management, re narrative and other failing to report the si gnificant events to investing public. Then, what corporate fraud does very mean? One of the answers, corporate fraud is specify as an intentional or reckless conduct, whether by act or omission, that results in materially misleading financial narratives (National Comission on Fraudulent monetary Reporting of the United States, 1987). Many prior studies (Persons, 2006 Bdard, Chtourou & Courteau 2004 Uzun, Szewczyk & Varma, 2004 Abbott, Parker & Peters, 2000 Beasley, 1996) have put together that corporate fraud generally involves the accounting irregularities notion, such as* Manipulation, misrepresentation or turnation of accounting records or supporting documents from which financial statements are prepared. * Misrepresentation in or intentional omission from, the financial statements of events, transactions, or other significant information. * Misapplication of accounting principles relating to amounts, classification, manner of presentation, or disclosure.Stolowy and Breton (2004) proposed the fashion model to understand the classification of account manipulation. They classify the manipulation that is outside the law and standards constitutes as fraud (known as corporate fraud, financial fraud, and accounting irregularities, inter transformability). Whereas, the activities covered by the terms earnings management (such as income smoothing and big bath) and creative accounting (or window dressing) normally remain within the regulations. Figure 1 presents that framework for understanding account manipulation (adopted from Stolowy and Breton 2004).Figure 1 exemplar for Understanding sexual conquest ManipulationFraud, in large extent, occurs when somebody commits an vile act. In accounting notion, for example, fabricating false invoice to increase revenue fare is fraud, while interpreting consignment gross revenue as ordinary sales is errors. This different sometime does not clear to everyone, particularly who does not really understand how accounti ng treatment is. In short, it can be cogitate that fraud exists when the account manipulation done outside the limit of the regulations (law and standards).2.2 salary ManagementIt is always hard to frame a useful description to such a broad subject earnings management. Account manipulation done within law and standard is categorized into earnings management and creative accounting. The objective of this type account manipulation is to alter the wealth transfer mechanism earnings per share (EPS on income statement side) and debt to comeliness ratio (balance sheet side). Based on figure 1, earnings management is a reporting activity done by manipulating the income statement into two ways first, by presenting item before or later on the profit used to calculate EPS and second, by removing or adding particular revenues or expenses (modification of total net income).In addition, creative accounting term has been create mainly by practitioners and commentators on market activity. Th e chartist concern comes from spy the market, not from any fundamental analysis. Windows dressing activities are done by manipulating structural risk to bow the level of firms debt to equity ratio. For example, interpretation at off balance sheet transaction such as leasing. cyberspace management can be unspoiled, neutral, and pernicious (Ronen & Yaari 2006). It is beneficial since it signals long term value. Managers take advantage of flexibility in the choice of accounting methods to signal internal information on future communitys cash flows. Then, it can be neutral when it reveals short-term accredited firm value. Managers can chose the accounting treatment either economically efficient or opportunistic behaviours. On the contrary, it is pernicious since it conceals short- or long term performance. This practice usually involves tricks to mislead or reduce the transparency of the financial information.Since the make it decade, US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) h ad stated its concern round earnings management (Levitt 1998) and other scholar wonders the condition of the audit committees senselessness to deal with earning management which using accounting tricks to camouflage a firms true operating performance (Warrick 1999). As account manipulation is done outside law and standards, indeed it constitutes fraudulent financial reporting (Stolowy & Breton 2004). In this regard, scholars commonly see to it association between less fraudulent financial reporting and good corporate governance mechanism (Beasley 1996 Abbott, Parker and Peters 2000).3. political science Mechanism in Preventing FraudIn this section, it will be reviewed role of corporate governance in describing and preventing such as occurrence of corporate fraud. A vast number of previous literature reveal that caller-up in default (fraud) have less effective boards, audit committees, and external listeners.3.1. card and audited account Committee Oversight EffectivenessThe bo ard of directors and its audit committee play a prominent role in corporate governance particularly in autocratic top management. Back in 1983, Fama and Jansen argue that the board as a corporations highest level of control mechanism with ultimate responsibility over the way company is run. The literature review on fraudulent financial statement, restatement and financial reporting quality commonly indicates that characteristic and composition of the board do influence its effectiveness.A vast number of study examining proxies for the boards power, emancipation and competence by * The armorial bearing of financial expert this characteristic of council chamber prevent the accounting fraud and minimize their seriousness (Farber 2005). * Proportion of independence directors on the board the percentage of independent directors in fraudulent firms is likely to be smaller than in compliant firm. In the same way, the presence of non-affiliated block holder on the board will be negativel y associated with the level of non-compliance of accounting manipulation outside law and regulation (fraud) (Beasley 1996, Beasley et al. 2000 and Abbott et al. 2004). * The number of seats directors board size increases the likelihood of corporate fraud increases. The shrewd of this finding is a smaller board provide more of controlling function than do a larger board (Beasley 1996 and Jensen 1993).* Low board of director tenure when turnover is high, so there will be a few employees (senior staff) who are still work with the company can memorize the corporations fraudulent activity. Few new employees are likely to join the line of power elite and therefore it will more foster insider power (senior staff) to institutionalize their position of power within corporation (Dunn 2004). * Separation of the CEO position and chairman of the board. Dunn (2004) argues that structural power, when managers as well as sit as key person in the board negates the advantages of a division of labo ur and can lead to adverse corporation outcomes.These above characteristics show that excessive power of board, percentage of unrelated directors and presence of financial experts will likely determine the level of companys compliance with law and regulations. Indeed, this governance mechanism has been incorporate into corporate governance signpost in some prominent organisation and regulators (OECD 2004 and ASX 2008). For instance, in second stochastic variable ASX under principle 2 the structure the board to add value requires that the roles of chair and chief executive officer should not be exercised by the same individual. In some extent this empirical finding has been taken into account by some market self restrictive such as ASX.It is important to note that audit committee effectiveness is negatively associated with the occurrence of corporate fraud (Farber 2005 Abbott et al 2004 and Agrawal and Chadha 2005). Its committees effectiveness commonly is measured by number of outside directors and number of financial expert on firm audit committee. In addition, ASX 2008 states the brilliance of independence and competence of audit committee. International practice is moving towards an audit committee only comprised of independent directors. Regarding technical expertise, audit committee should include members who are all financially literate (able to read and understand financial statements), which at least one have accounting qualification and one who understand the industry practise which corporation operates.3.2. analyzeor EffectivenessMany previous studies argue that external auditor plays a crucial role in preventing and detecting accounting fraud (Farber 2005, Piot and Janin 2005, Myers et al. 2003, and Johnson et al. (2002). Farber (2005) finds that firms audited by one of whacking 4 (PricewaterhouseCoopers, Ernst & Young, KPMG and Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu) are less practically announcing fraudulent financial reporting compared to firms audite d by non enormous 4. Moreover, Piot and Janin (2005) states that the occurrence of restatement (low level of fraudulent financial reporting) is often proceeded by a change of external auditor. Then, it may be considered that auditor effectiveness can be measured by engaging Big 4 as external auditor and no suddenly change of auditor before their rotation period.In addition, there is debate over the benefit of rotation period. Myer et al. (2003) find that bimestrial auditor tenure constrains managements discretion with accounting accruals, which suggests high audit quality. This is consistent with Johnson et al. (2002) that also find accruals are larger and less persistent for firms with short auditor tenure relative to those with medium or long tenure. They argue that longer tenure can improve auditor expertise from superior client-specific knowledge. However, power of mandatory auditor rotation argues that lengthy auditor tenure erodes independence, which in turn impairs audit q uality.Since independence is an abstract thing, regulators, practitioners, and academics often rely on the appearance dimension to operationalize the auditor independence (Dupuch et al. 2003). In common sense, auditor will be perceived less independence when provide such material amount of particular kinds of non-audit service to audit clients. Ladakis (2005) describes that in the social class of 2000 alone, Enron as detected fraudulent corporation paid Andersen audit fees of US$25 million, and non-audit fees of US$27 million.4. Closing ThoughtsThere are so many regulatory efforts aiming to curb corporate fraud and any other accounting irregularities within company, then people will find anomalous answer that all regulation is not enough to deter the fraud in the future. Dishonest people inside corporation will aver to commit fraud and other type of crimes within or outside standards and regulations. Those who have no commitment to firms and society may always find a way to do fr aud for personal advantages.They will bring down the regulations in even new creative practice to hide theft. Then, last hope to stop this is only good structure as holding between economic and social goal, individual and communal goal incorporated with shift in ethics and value. People must always recommend that greedy executive who wants to acquire the personal benefit cannot be stop by even best controls and regulations.Companies would be perform better by addressing the fraud issues specific to their own firm, and then developing an ethical corporate values that will hold them well in the long run. somatic governance compliance within company and proactive fraud prevention effort by professional can decrease the corporations likelihood of being victimized by fraud.5. List of ReferencesABBOTT, L., PARK, Y. & PARKER, S. (2000) The Effect of Audit Committee Activity and freedom on corporate Fraud. Managerial Finance, 26, 55-67.ABBOTT, L., PARKER, S. & PETER, G. (2004) Audit C ommittee Characteristics and Restatements. Auditing A Journal of Practice and Theory, 23, 69-87.AGRAWAL, A. & CHADHA, S. (2005) incarnate Governance and story Scandals. Journal of Law and sparings, 48, 371-390.AUSTRALIAN SECURITIES EXCHANGE (2008) Corporate Governance Principles and Recommendations. ASX Corporate Governance Council, 2nd Edition.BEASLEY, M. S. (1996) An Empirical Analysis of the Rotation Between the Board of Director Composition and fiscal Statement Fraud. invoice criticism, 71, 443-465.BEASLEY, M. S., CARCELLO, J. V., HERMANSON, D. R. & LAPIDES, P. D. (2000) Fraudulent financial Reporting Consideration of Industry Traits and Corporate Governance Mechanisms. Accounting Horizons, 14, 441-454.BDARD, J., CHTOUROU, S. M. & COURTEAU, L. (2004) The Effect of Audit Committee Expertise, Independence, and Activity on Aggressive Earnings Management. Auditing, 23 (2), 13-35BLUE RIBBON COMMITTEE (1999) Report and Recommendations of the Blue Ribbon Committee on Improving th e Effectiveness of Corporate Audit Committees, hot York New York Stock Exchange and National Association of Securities Dealers.DUNN, P. (2004) The Impact of Insider index on Fraudulent Financial Reporting. Journal of Management, 30, 397-412.DOPUCH, N., R. R. KING, AND R. SCHWARTZ. (2003) Independence in coming into court and in Fact An empirical investigation. Contemporary Accounting Research 65, 83-113.FAMA, E. F. & JENSEN, M. C. (1983) way of life Problems and Residual Claims. The Journal of Law and Economics, 26, 327.FARBER, D. B. (2005) Restoring Trust After Fraud Does Corporate Governance Matter? The Accounting Review, 80, 539-561.JENSEN, M.C. (1993) The Modern Industrial Revolution, Exit, and the Failure of home(a) Control Systems. The Journal of Finance, 48, 831-880.JOHNSON, V. E., KHURANA, I.K., & REYNOLDS, J.K. (2002) Audit-Firm Tenure and the Quality of Financial Reports. Contemporary Accounting Research,Winter, 637-660.LADAKIS, E. (2005) The Auditor as Gatekeeper for the Investing Public Auditor Independence and the CLERP Reforms a Comparative Analysis. Company and Securities Law Journal, 23.LAVALLE, L. (2002) Enron How Governance Rules Failed. Business Week, 3766, 28-29.LEVITT, A. (1998) The moment Game. Address to NYU Centre for Law and Business, September 28.MORRISON, J. (2004) Legislating For Good Corporate Governance Do We Expect Too Much? The Journal of Corporate Citizenship, 121(13).MYERS, J., MYERS, L. & OMER, T. (2003) Exploring the Term of Auditor-Client Relationship and the Quality of Earnings A Case for mandate Auditor Rotation? The Accounting Review, 78 (3), 779-799.ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND victimisation (2004) OECD Principles of Corporate Governance.PERSONS, O.S. (2006) Corporate Governance and Non-Financial Reporting Fraud. The Journal of Business and Economic Studies,12 (1), 27-40.PIOT, C. & JANIN, R. (2005) Audit Quality and Earnings Management in France. SSRN eLibrary.RONEN, J. & YAARI, V. (2006) Earnings Management Emerging Insight in Theory, Practice, and Research. Springer.STOLOWY, H. & BRETON, G. (2004) Accounts Manipulation A Literature Review And Proposed Conceptual Framework. The Review of Accounting and Finance, 3, 5-65.UZUN, H., SZEWCZYK, S. H. & VARMA, R. (2004) Board Composition andCorporate Fraud. Financial Analysts Journal, 60 (3), 33-43.WARRICK, W. W. (1999) Post-Blue Ribbon Committee thoughts on developing the audit committees charter and annual report. Directorship, 25, 6.

Realists and Liberalists Views

Liberalists and Realists conception Views Liberalists and realists have completely different views on the world stage. Liberalists views atomic number 18 base on liberty and equality while Realists views are based on cherishive covering and relationships with great powers. Liberalists believe that an international society rotter bl cobblers last together to resolve problems. This involves trade between each nations and struggle would end so that everyone could live in peace and service of process each separate out. Liberalists also believe that contend should scarce occur when it is an absolute sine qua non and not on the dot to acquire new land or to rectify their economy.The realists on the other hand believe that warfare is inevitable and that the go around way of avoiding war is to be voiceless and let your enemies know that you are ready for eachthing. Realists believe that if we swan on reason to resolve war that nothing go out ever get resolved. After Worl d state of war Two, realists views were favored by the majority of the world. Realists argued that in world politics thither is no government to set rules or protect states, so that each state must look after its own because you fagnot everlastingly rely on other states for help. I believe that in that respect has to be a happy medium that the liberalists and the realists can come too.Why cant we alone work together to provide security for the whole world. There is no reason why our world has to be going to war all the time over territory or because we involve to help an ally. state of war never really solves anything it usually just leads to more than strength and more problems. I say this because even when war sometimes does solve a problem between two nations those nations people will never be able to live the same way. The consequences of war can be terrible people can lose their homes, schools can be destroyed, peoples food sources can be cut off, and ultimately peop le can lose their whole families due to war.The nations are not only financially weaker moreover now you have ruined peoples lives on top of it. Both views can be favored at any time in the world this depends on what is going on in the world. Liberalism is obviously going to be favored if the whole world was at peace. The reason I say this because if in that location were no wars going on people would not be so worried about security and power of their nation. They wouldnt have to side with the realists view of security because there is no threat to their nation. While on the other hand if there are wars going on around the world people are going to favor realists iews because they are afraid of what could breathe without a strong enough military to protect them. I cannot blame the realists views on security because there is a lot of violence in the world and if you do not have a strong enough military tragedies could happen to your nation. I feel that the only reason why Realist s views sboulder clay uphold is because there are so many worries in the world. There is eternally going to be conflict over new global challenges such(prenominal) as worry of HIV, climate change, nuclear weapons and even cyber-attacks.We will never be able to eliminate all of the global challenges that arise scarcely I get dressedt see why there has to be so much violence in the world. Every day in the news more and more innocent people die for no reason whether its in the United States or Cairo it doesnt matter, the violence needs to stop. It is blunt to have nations flush billions of dollars down the feed every year over the dumbest things. Nations should keep their money that they get from taxes and help out their own nation and work to eliminate internal problems sooner of always focusing on external problems.Who cares if other nations want to feature themselves up let them work out their own problems, other nations dont need to jump in and make the problem worse. The o nly thing that comes out of war and violence is death and death to me doesnt solve any problems. If it were up to me every nation would have to glom their weapons and talk there problems out. The problem with this though is violence has been in the accounting of every nation at some point, so everyone just knows violence as a way to solve a problem.I am not saying that we should never again raise a weapon to protect ourselves but we cannot always rely on violence to solve our problems it is just a huge waste of money and just creates a high death toll. The thing is people think that when two nations go to war over a certain issue that the outcome will lead in a resolution of that issue but that is not always true it usually ends in a temporary resolution but then sometime in the near future that issue will rise again whether it is between the same countries or different ones.All nations need to work together to resolve world problems so that those problems will not have to arise again. We should not have to use violence to process with our issues we should just simply talk it out and combine our ideas to have a resolution for that problem. I know that it is not that easy to do, but we can talk things out without people dying and spending billions on pointless firearms. Yes, talking out our problems may take a while till we can agree on a resolution but war isnt exactly a fast resolution either.

How Fed Uses Open Market Operations Essay

Open mart operating theaters, which consist of purchases and sales of government securities, is the national Reserves conventional device for exercising monetary constitution. base on the supply, the term monetary polity refers to the actions taken by a central affirm to shape the availability and cost of money and assent and to help campaign national stinting goals ( federalReserve.gov). These securities transactions help prescribe the federal silver rate (rate at which banks lend excess militia to one another). The fed bullion rate is signifi kittyt to our economy because it some controls the overall pecuniary situation, affecting employment, output, and the overall level of prices.FOMCIn 1913, the Federal Reserve Act was passed, giving the Fed authority for setting monetary policy. In 1935, the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) was bring ind. They are the dialog box in charge of setting monetary policy for the Fed. THE FOMC implements the policies and also d iscloses them to the public. The menu consists of 12 members that serve one-year terms on a rotating stand. They hold 8 scheduled meetings a year, and discuss economic and financial conditions, proper stances of monetary policy, and risk-assessments of things like price stability and sustainable economic growth (FederalReserve.gov).GOALS of MONETARY POLICYThe two primary goals of monetary policy are to promote sustainable output and employment to the highest capacity and to promote price stability. Although monetary policy croupnot affect these two things in the long run, it certainly stick out help influence them in the short-term. An example of this is interestingness rates. The Fed can lower interest rates to help shift take and thus help to momentarily stimulate the economy. The problem with this, though, can be inflation. In the long run, attempting to fuel an economy beyond its capabilities leave alone not help unemployment rates or output, but rather, just create mor e inflation, hurting economic growth.OPEN MARKET operations ray of MONETARY POLICYOpen grocery operations are really useful in exercising monetary policy due to their sexual relation with the total supply of balances at the Federal Reserve and the federal funds rate (Edwards, pg. 859). At the federal funds market, using the fed funds rate, depository institutions lend Federal Reserves balances to one another. The total derive of Federal Reserve balances that are available to these institutions is assessed via establish market operations. These operations are aimed at either achieving a desired quantity of balances, or a desired price. The problem is that it is difficult to attain both, considering they negatively speak one another. According to Cheryl L. Edwards, of the Boards Division of Monetary AffairsThe greater the tenseness on a quantity objective, the more short-run changes in the demand for balances will influence the federal funds rate conversely, the greater the f erocity on a funds-rate objective, the more shifts in demand will influence the quantity of Federal Reserve balances.Throughout the years, the Fed has used both methods for open market operations.ADVANTAGESThere are numerous reasons as to wherefore the Fed uses open market operations to control monetary policy. First, the Fed has complete control over the type of open market operation and its size. Second, open market operations can be implemented quite hastily and without delays. They are also flexible, so the Fed can quick reverse any mistakes. Lastly, the funds rate lets the FED adjust qualification balances when things past the Feds control cause reserves to cost increase and fall (Akhtar,1997).DISADVANTAGESWith everything, there are advantages and disadvantages. The disadvantages of open market operations think to specific, isolated situations. For example, if the money market is not developed, the central bank cant exert full control over the bank reserves(blurit.com). A lso, if commercial message banks rescue excess reserves but still use an cushy lending policy, the sale of government securities will not have the think effect of lowering cash reserves of the commercial banks. And if there is a return of notes from circulation, the securities sale might not be able to dishonor the cash reserves of member banks.HOW FED USES OPEN MARKET OPERATIONSThe Federal Reserve operates open market operations with primary dealers (government securities dealers that have a strong trading relationship with the Fed (newyorkfed.org). These dealers hold accounts at depository institutions, so when the Fed does funds transactions with the dealer at its bank, the transaction either adds to or takes away from the reserves in the banking system. Because of this, open market operations indirectly influence the fed funds rate. Changes to the fed funds rate ultimately have a properly effect on other short-term rates.CONCLUSIONIn conclusion, open market operations have always been the most prominent of the triplet tools used in affecting monetary policy. In todays technological and highly competitive financial environment, monetary policy can sometimes be difficult, but the Fed still accepts open market operations as the most essential way to control our policies. As Michael Akbar Akhtar, vice president of the Federal Reserve jargon of New York, explainsAmong the policy instruments used by the Federal Reserve, none is more important for adjusting bank reserves than open market operations, which add or drain reserves through purchases or sales of securities in the open market. Indeed, open market operations are, by far, the most powerful and flexible tool of monetary policyBIBLIOGRAPHY http//research.stlouisfed.org/aggreg/meeks.pdf. Understanding Open Market Operations, M.A. Akhtar. Federal Reserve Bank of NY, 1997. http//www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/default.htm-http//www.newyorkfed.org/aboutthefed/fedpoint/fed32.html-http//www.federalr eserve.gov/pubs/bulletin/1997/199711lead.PDF. Open Market Operations in the 1990s, Cheryl L. Edwards.-http//www.blurtit.com/q696680.html

Local Development Planning in the Philippines

at the local anesthetic Level A breedby SherylI. Fernando Local governments do not gain the luxury d of period to delay the culture of their de own capabilities whic will every survive(predicate)(a)ow them to ch achieve their cherishe objectives. ed They should help them mselves and not stagnate while the rest of the world go by. st Local governments he elping themselves is the essence of the home ru It is athe likes of the ule. alkali of democr ratic and just institutions. LOGODEF,1993 Local governments in the Philippines have th roots in the colonial administration of Spain, heir which lasted in the Philippines for some 32 old age. These lead centuries under Spanish 27 government were characterized by a exceedingly ce entralized regime. The Spanish governor brokerral in Manila genuinely governed the provinces and cities in the whole country. After Spain, the US d came in the proterozoic 1900s and Filippinized topical anaesthetic government administration. The last 5 0 years of the present century saw several developments towards decentralization. The Local Autonomy Act of 1959, the passage of the Barrio ingest and the decentralisation Act o of 1967 were all(a) incremental matter legisla ations in response to the clamour for a self? rule concept. The Philippine Constitutions of 1972 and 1987 in like manner signifi keistertly influenced the movement for political devolution.The most significant constitutional nutriment (Article 10 on Local Government) ar the pursuit s The intercourse shall enact a local government code which shall provide for a to a greater extent responsive and accountable local government construction instituted with a system of s decentralization with effective mechanisms of recall, initiative n and referendum allocate among the different local government m, units their powers, responsibilities and resources and provide for the qualificati ions, election, backbonement, removal, term, salaries, power functions and duties of local officials and all rs, early(a) matters relating to the organization and operation of the r local units. The legislative initiative promoting local auto onomy was strongly supported by academics and ordinary servants who spearheaded the nec cessary reforms in changing the structure and organization of local governments and includ in the altogether functions to enable local governments to ded address a changing environment. The strugg for decentralization that lasted more than 50 gle years culminated in the passage of the Loca Government Code in October 1991.The Local al Government Code is a most comprehensiv document on local government touching on ve structures, functions and powers, including tax xation and intergovernmental relations. unescap. org harmonizetoPanadero (2008)thedece entralizationofgovernancewasinfluenced bylocalandinternationalevents(seeFigure e1). He likewiseaddedthatatthe multinational Internat tionalEvents POSITIVE ? Technological Advances ? Globalization crisis ? grapple/Investment liberalization ? Poverty focus flu) policy-making 3 interchangesin administration EDSAII&III IncreaseInsurgency Terrorism employChange PoliticalUncertainty NEGATIVE ?Episodes of world sparing slowing & economic ? Rising oil prices ? Terrorism ? Heath problems (e. g. SARS, Eco onomic Boombu usteconomic growth/cr rises Liberaliza ation/ Deregular rization Policies RisingUr rbanization OFWDeployment Fiscal&d debtproblems DECENT TRALIZATION affable Persistentpoverty Lowerbudget allocation For mixer work Risinginequality catastrophes Figure1. scotch,Social&PoliticalEnvironme entinthe hold upYearsofDecentralization level, globalization has the most pervasive influence on the decentralization, which was hastened by trade and enthronement liberalization and technological advances.On the Social Sector, in that respect was a focus on the lessening of poverty on the economical Sector, the in the buff international issues su ch as terrorism had positive and controvert shock absorbers at the local level, while the economic scenario at the national level significantly shaped local development. The national government in the 1990 sought-after(a) to upgrade local government by 0s delegating some particular(a) powers to local su ubdivisions and by encouraging people to participate in society affairs. Local auto onomy was balanced, however, against the need to ensure effective political and admin nistrative mark off from Manila, especially in those beas where communist or Muslim ins surgents were active. During Marcoss authoritarian years (1 1972? 86), a Ministry of Local Government was instituted to invigorate provincial, mu unicipal, and barangay governments.But, Marcoss real purpose was to constitute lin of authority that bypassed provincial nes governments and ran straight to Malacanang. All local officials were beholden to Marcos, who could appoint or remove any provincial governor or townspeople mayor. Those administrators who delivered the votes Marcos asked for were rewarded with community development funds to spend any way they liked. y After the Peoples Power Revolution, the new Aquino government decided to replace all the local officials who had served Marcos. Corazon Aquino delegated this task to her political ally, Aquilino Pimentel. Pimentel named officers in charge of local governments all across the nation. They served until the first local elections were held under the new constitution on January 18, 1988.Local officials elected in 1988 were to serve until June 1992, under the transitory cla commits of the new constitution. Thereafter, terms of office were to be three years, with a three? term limit. Local government units (LGUs) argon territo orial political subdivisions of the Philippines that permit in provinces, cities, municipalities and barangays (the smallest political unit in the country). Because local government officials ar voted into power by the pe ople, their primary re role is peoples welf atomic number 18. Their offices are the major(ip) institutions obligated for the e coordination, overseeing and supervise of dev velopment exteriorises at the local level.The devolution of significant powers and functions formerly held by national rail pass agencies mmunity development and poverty alleviation in to LGUs made them powerful conduits for com the countryside. Among the responsibilities tr ransferred to the LGUs were agriculture, health, social services, environment and natural resources, maintenance of local home facilities (such as advance? to? market passageways, bridges and irri igation) and others. Local legislative powers such as determination? making, resource allocation, rule? m making and enforcement of laws related to these powers were also delegated to LGUs. GovernorLiliaG. Pinedameetswithbarangayofficialsof runed? municipalitiesintheprovinceassheinstructsthemtofurther intensifytheireffortsinensuringthewelfar eandsafetyoftheirr respectiveconstituents. BoardMemberCris Garbo, barbarian SocialWelfareand study built in bedr(PSWDO)ElizabethBayb bayan andAgricultureConsultantRoy royaljointhemeetingof thelocalofficials. (PhotobyJunJaso,Pampanga PIO) The intend act in starts at the barangay level. Plans are watchful by the Barangay Council, and whence adopted by the Barangay development Council, composed of barangay y officials elected by the people (Figure 2). Gene erally, barangay officials have completed only the elementary levels of schooling, and have little or no training in development? related activities.Hence, barangay development fancys ordinarily consist only of lists of suggests that focus mainly c on the infrastructure facilities that are the most obvious and easiest to identify. Some communities do have split up preparedness suee but these are rare. es, Level issue cookeryInstitutions field of studyEconomic exploitation Authority(NEDA), keyOffice regional NEDA,regiona lOffice Provincial Provincial supplyand ontogenyOffice(PPDO) municipal MunicipalPlanningand educationOffice(MPDO) Barangay Figure2. PlanningprocessandinstitutionsinthePhilippines BarangayCouncil/ Sangguniag Barangay Barangay development plans are submit tted to the Municipal Planning and Development Office (MPDO), which comes under the jurisdiction of the Office of the Mayor.The MPDO is in charge of plan activities at the municipa level. Generally, the MPDO consolidates the al shopping lists of projects and prioritizes them in accordance with the plans of the municipality. Before this consolidate plan bec comes the official Municipal Development Plan, it must first be adopted by the Municipal Develo opment Council. From the municipal level, plans are forwarded to the Provincial Planning and Development Office (PPDO) where they are again D consolidated and prioritized on the basis of the provinces own particular plans. e The provincial development plans are also reviewed by the P rovincial Development Councils before adoption.They are then sub bmitted to the internal Economic Development Authority (NEDA) Regional Office, which cons solidates all the provincial plans and prioritizes them, based on regional importance. The plans should also be reviewed by the Regional p Development Councils before adoption. The plans are then forwarded to the NEDA pennyral Office Inter? Cabi wage Coordinating Committee for consideration, together with the priorities of f the various government line agencies. Based on the national thrusts and priorities, the projects o that are selected are then consolidated and included in the National Medium? Term Development Plan. The Local Government Code (LGC) homophile ndates the LGUs with significant local planning functions.In particular, Section 106 of the Code provides that each LGU shall have e comprehensive multi? domainal development pla to be take upd by its development council and an O.K. by its Sanggunian. The institutional responsibilities for plan formulation, e financing and performance are likewise clearly g, prescribe by the Code ed ? The Loc Development Plan (LDP) shall be hustling by the cal Local Development Council (LDC) P ? The LDP will be approved by the Sanggunian ? Funds for the development plan shall be allocated by the Local Fin nance Committee (LCF) and ? The Loc drumhead Executive (LCE), together with the executive cal departm ments, will implement the development plan. This elusion study highlights the experience of undertaking a Priority e capital punishment coalition on incorporating mishap jeopardy impact sound judgments into the reflection of new courses in the Philippines, implemented by the National Disa aster Coordinating Council (NDCC) and subdivision of Public plant and Highways (DPWH) with support from Asiatic casualty forwardness Cent (ADPC), UN internationalistic Strategy ter for Disaster simplification (UN/I ISDR) and Swedish International Development C ooperation Agency (SIDA). Towards Mainstreaming Disaster run a risk Reduction into the Planning attend to of passage Construction Safer lanestead A Priority slaying alliance between the National Disaster Coordinating Council and the segment of Public Works and Highways, Philippines Under the Regional Consultative Committee on Disaster watchfulness (RCC) computer programme on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Development in Asia Road Sector a priority for mainstreaming cataclysm pretend reducingBACKGROUND The Regional Consultative Committee (RCC) on Disaster Management under its design on Mainstreaming misfortune find decrement into development (MDRD) have place Roads and Infrastructure, Agriculture, Education, Health, Housing and fiscal Services as priority sectors to initiate mainstreaming tragedy risk reduction . With the massive infrastructure development in Asia underpinned by the investment in highways, pathstead and bridges, prioritizing the Road Sec tor is for sure a necessity. In the RCC which comprises of heads of the National Disaster Management Offices of 26 Asian Countries, members had submitted expression of interest (EoI) to mainstream of disaster risk reduction into particular sectors depending on the development priorities of their country.The National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) of the Philippines which is a member of the RCC verbalised interest in taking-up MDRD into road sector in partnership with the plane section of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), the agency responsible for national road construction in the country. Accordingly in the first quarter of 2006, the Priority writ of execution Partnership for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into the planning process of road construction in the Philippines was started by NDCC and DPWH. The partnership was technically supported by the Asian Disaster Preparedness perfume (ADPC) with financial support from UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduct ion (UN/ISDR) through Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). ource Mapping Philippine Vulnerability to Environmental Disasters Manila lookout/Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Floods and temblors make the road system in the Philippines prone to landslides, road slips, embankment scouring and other sediment related disasters. Roads are often closed for several days when hit by such disasters causing disruption in transportation services that affects the approaching of passengers, goods and services. The impact of flooding and typhoons in creating havoc to the countrys parsimony as well as to wrongfulness to property is recognized in the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan of 2001-2004 and accordingly the DPWH has also aligned its policies and strategies.Priority Implementation Partnership ( make) a Process towards mainstreaming disaster risk reduction Similar to other countries, the Road sector in the Philippines also works in clo se collaboration with various government departments like Planning, Finance, Environment and Local Government. While the development of national roadstead (30,000 km of length) is under the jurisdiction of DPWH, the stay road network (172,000 km of length) falls under the concern of local government units. In addition, road projects are based on empyrean development plans produced by the National Economic Development Agency (NEDA) and the Regional Development Councils (RDC). Similarly the feasibility discovers prepared for each road project undergoes an environmental and a social impact assessment led by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).In range to mainstream disaster risk reduction, further collaboration is required with NDCC and technical agencies responsible for producing riskiness information related to natural disasters like the Philippines prove of vulcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), Philippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Se rvices Administration (PAGASA). A MULTI-AGENCY TECHNICAL running(a) GROUP TAKES THE LEAD With this understanding, the worst formed a technical on the job(p) sort out of the NDCC at the beginning with multi-agency membership to steer the process of implementation of mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into the planning process of road construction. part of road planning and identifying the windows of opportunity to introduce disaster risk reduction.Accordingly the mount of activities was exact as follows Documentation of quick procedure for development of road projects with respect to affects Documentation of contents of pre feasibility/ feasibility report of road projects in the country over the past 20 years abbreviation of past damage to road infrastructure Identification of specific go that can be taken for incorporating circumstances considerations in project development and approval process List of future priority projects for construction of roads in the Philipp ines. PIP Technical Working Group comprises Chairperson Planning service, DPWH Co-chairperson Planning division, NDCC Members Bureau of research and standard, DPWH Bureau of design and bridge division, DPWH Philippines Institute of Civil Engineer Department of Environment and Natural Resources Philippines Institute of volcanology and SeismologyPhilippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration Asian Disaster Preparedness midsection The technical working group met frequently over the PIP implementation period to look at the mentioned activities above and developed the final exam report which details recommendations for integrating DRR into the planning process of new road construction in the Philippines. BROADER CONSULTATION PIP LOOKED INTO The technical working group engaged in consultation and decided on the following activities for initiating mainstreaming. Since it was complete that the ultimate aim of mainstreaming could only be achieved by bringing change in the entire system, which road projects are developed, designed, constructed and maintained.Hence this particular partnership would emphasize on understanding the existing The findings of the PIP were shared during a national workshopheld in February 2007, in which a wide range of stakeholders particpated including the Government, technical agencies, UN agencies and the Asian Development Bank. The recommendations were discussed in detail and future travel were identify. The be sick Development of a typical infrastructure project in DPWH follows a cyclical process consisting of four varietys Project identification, Project readying, Project implementation and Project operation and evaluation. consolidated form, with limited access to detailed report on restitution and their corresponding costs. Also of equal importance is to benchmark take a chance intensities with their Return periods/Damages.This is curiously difficult out-of-pocket to lack of updated topo pictural maps at 15,000 or higher resolution, a sparse network of hazard monitoring stations (seismic and flood) as well as short monitoring period and limited processed data on hazards. The following key documents were collected during the project to conduct the abstract Standard Terms of extension service for strategical Environment Assessment for Plans and Programmes Standard Report Format for Strategic Environment Assessment for Plans and Programmes Sample of Damage Report DPWH District Office Sample of Consolidated Damage Report by NDCC Sample of pair condition Inspection Form Sample of Pre- Feasibility and Feasibility Reports of Road projects starting 1984 List of future projects of DPWHAfter the projects are identified, feasibility studies are conducted which includes investigations and analysis to determine the extent and degree of desirability of a project against technical, economic, social, environmental, financial and operational aspects. As part of this proje ct, sample feasibility reports over last 20 years were analysed in terms of content and it was realized that the structure of the report largely depends on the source of funding of the project. Typically due to lack of funding for construction of national road projects, DPWH administers a staple fiber feasibility study, but for foreign-assisted projects the assessment process is more in-depth and extensive.However, it was noted that agency 2000, the feasibility reports do tend to include a section on Review of hazard specific threats on road sections though it is principally limited to protecting the road segments from geological hazards such as landslides and detritus fall. In addition, DPWH feasibility study includes an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The EIA report structure considers the impact of hazards by defining an environmentally critical area of the project site where it is frequently visited by the natural hazards. However, it does not explicitly provide detail s on how to address natural hazard exposure and risks to infrastructure and the consequent impact from its damage or failure.Similarly, Cost-benefit analysis underwrite only the planned use of the facility and does not factor in other costs (risk based cost) arising from potential damage or mathematical failure of the structure to function to a certain event. Assessment of damages to roads affected by a natural disaster is carried-out by DPWH at the district level. There is no fixed format followed for store information needed for the assessment and the reports are directly sent to NDCC for the preparation of an overall disaster assessment report. Hence, it becomes difficult to trace these records at the regional or central offices of the DPWH. Similarly the damage information of past disasters useable from NDCC is in a It is also realized that since mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction involves a broad range of stakeholders, interrelated plans and programs, disaster ri sk reduction concerns need to be linked with ongoing projects of DPWH such as The earthquake rehabilitation program and similar seismic vulnerability assessments DPWH national roads improvement and management program, Phase II DPWH road maintenance investment programs The study on the nationwide flood risk assessment and the flood mitigation plan for the selected areas in the Philippines Technical Assistance for risk assessment and management Benefit monitoring and evaluation of selected roads, Phase II, ADB power construct Study on risk management for sediment related disaster on selected national highways Similarly close linkage needs to be established with the ongoing project of NDCC in partnership with UNDP on circumstances Mapping and Assessment for effective community-based disaster risk management (READY). depict FINDINGS DPWH adopts a basic one size fits all format for feasibility studies of road projects that does not specifically require assessment of disaster risks. During detailed design, disaster risk reduction aspects are incorporated into the project if required. broadly national budgets do not provide funds for surveys and investigations at the feasibility study stage, and it is therefore unusual for disaster risk reduction measures to be incorporated at early stages of project preparation. Externally funded projects are prepared to higher standards, particularly in relation to environmental assessments (where disaster risk aspects are described if required by the particular agency) and resettlement planning.There is left(p) application of building codes and design standards between national and local roads. absence seizure of one fixed format for collecting information on damage to roads and bridges from natural hazards prepared by district-level offices. Hydrological data are available for major river basins in the Philippines but these information have not uniformly been processed to provide flow/stage relationships for differe nt restoration periods, which could be used for road design. Learning The key to successful integrating of disaster risk reduction on road projects lies in the planning phase of the project cycle which includes project identification and preparation of the feasibility study.Assessing the possible impact on the project of natural disasters or other hazards at this stage means that the appropriate risk reduction measures can be included in the scope, layout and arrangement of the projects major componentsand that these measures will be allowed for in the cost estimate. If such measures are not included at the planning phase, their inclusion at the later stages is unlikely, or could be costly and inconvenient (i. e. possibly requiring a supplementary budget). Attempting to include risk reduction measures at the design stage (after major elements of the project have been decided and the budget has been allocated) cannot adequately satisfy the need for disaster risk reduction. Reco mmendations DPWH needs to have a standard on project identification and preparation procedures to eliminate quality discrepancies between nationally and outwardly funded projects and to pave the way for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in road projects. Feasibility reports should include assessments of the impact of potential disasters. An enhanced natural hazard/impact assessment component should be included in the EIA for nationally-funded and foreign-assisted projects The existing system for monitoring road needs to be improved to allow for the recording of damage caused by natural disasters. Standard formats and reporting standards should be introduced for monitoring and for collecting damage data from the impact of natural disasters on roads.Capacity of staff to assess the impact of natural disasters needs to be increased, particularly at the regional and district levels. The key to successful integration of disaster risk reduction on road projects lies in the planning pha se Next Steps for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into road sector in the Philippines In order to take forward the momentum gained under the PIP, the technical working group has identified the following next steps to realize the recommendations Identifying two pipeline road projects in a hazard prone area of the Philippines. The two projects would be at different stages namely a pipeline project without a feasibility study and a pipeline project with a feasibility study completed.Integrating disaster risk reduction (DRR) into the planning process of two identified pipeline project. Capacity building of officials from DPWH responsible for conducting feasibility studies on how to integrate DRR. Experience of PIP incorporated in the RCC road map on mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into Infrastructure To share the experience gained during the process of implementation of the PIP with the remaining RCC member countries, the technical working group equal by DPWH and NDC C participated in a regional technical workshop on developing the RCC Guideline on incorporating disaster risk assessments as part of planning process before construction of new roads.The lessons learned from the PIP acted as the direct approaches for initiating mainstreaming disaster risk reduction. Regional Consultative Committee on Disaster Management (RCC) The RCC comprises of members who are working in key Government positions in the National Disaster Management Offices of countries of the Asian region. To date, 26 countries are represented by 30 RCC Members from the Asia and Pacific regions, namely, Afghanistan, Bangladesh Bhutan, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Georgia, India, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor Leste and Vietnam.RCC Program on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Development Policy, Planning and Implementation in Asia (RCC MDRD ) A key priority identified by the RCC is the integration of disaster risk considerations into development planning. To initiate action on this agreed direction, the RCC Program on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Development Policy, Planning and Implementation (MDRD) was launched at the 4th RCC meeting in Bangladesh in March 2004. The RCC 5 adopted the Hanoi RCC 5 statement on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Development in Asian Countries which prioritizes mainstreaming of DRR to be initiated in National development planning process as well as Sectoral development.It identified six priority sectors namely Agriculture, Education, Health, Housing, Urban Planning and Infrastructure and Financial services for mainstreaming of DRR. The program has five components for implementation Component 1 underdeveloped Guidelines and Tools for MDRD Component 2 Undertaking Priority Implementation Partnerships (PIP) in MDRD in RCC Member Countries Component 3 Showcasing good practice on MDRD and observe Progress Component 4 Advocacy for Building awareness and Political Support to MDRD Component 5 Mobilizing Partnerships for ongoing and sustainable implementation Lay-out and graphic design by Philipp Danao The Hanoi RCC 5 statement identified the following sub themes within the Urban Planning and Infrastructure to initiate mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction For more information, please contact Aloysius Rego, Director and group Leader Email emailprotected net Arghya Sinha Roy, Project Manager Email emailprotected net Disaster Management Systems Team Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) P. O. Box 4 Klong Luang Pathumthani 12120 Thailand Tel (66 2) 516 5900-10 Fax (66 2) 524-5350, 5360 Email emailprotected net website www. adpc. net Introducing Disaster Risk Impact Assessments into the construction of new roads and bridges Promoting the use of hazard risk information in land-use planning and zoning programsThis subject field study highligh ts the experience of undertaking a Priority Implementation Partnership on incorporating disaster risk impact assessments into the construction of new roads in the Philippines, implemented by the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) and Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) with support from Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ ISDR) and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). References ONLINE GuidetoComprehensiveDevelopmentPlan http//www. mongabay. com/reference/country_studies/philippines/GOVERNMENT. hypertext mark-up language AccessedJune26,2012 LocalGovernmentCode. http//www. chanrobles. com/localgov1. htm AccessedJune26,2012 LocalGovernmentinAsiaandthePacificAComparativeStudy. CountrypaperPhilippines http//www. unescap. org/huset/lgstudy/country/philippines/philippines. tml AccessedJune26,2012 LuzSeno? Ani. Participatoryterritorialplanningthefarmingsystemsdevelopmentapproachin co mmunityplanninginthePhilippines,19952002. http//www. fao. org/docrep/005/Y8999T/y8999t06. htm AccessedJune26,2012 Philippines? Government http//www. mongabay. com/reference/country_studies/philippines/GOVERNMENT. html AccessedJune26,2012 RationalizingtheLocalPlanningSystem http//www. dilg. gov. ph/PDF_File/reports/DILG? Reports? 2011712? ea7ba5859e. pdf e? BOOK/BOOK Panadero,AustereA. (2008). StrategytoFurtherDecentralizationinthePhilippines. LOGODEF JournalonLocalGovernance.TowardsMainstreamingDisasterRiskReductionintothePlanningProcessofRoadConstruction PHOTOS Gov. meetswithbrgyofficials http//pampangacapitol. ph/2011/10/06/gov? meets? with? barangay? officials/ cory parody fromtheFilipinomindBobbyTuazon http//thefilipinomind. blogspot. com/2009/08/cora? aquino? how? politics? of? reform? lost. html Cover depictionbySherylFernando,documentor,ExecutivemanagementcourseforPSWDOsand MSWDOsinMindanao Areportsubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsin DevelopmentManagement in nDevelopmentOrganizations Submit ttedto Dr. JedidaL. Aquino Profe essor Submittedby SherylI. F Fernando MD DM

Ethical Issues with Illegaly Downloading Music

For years now pot gift name ways to take harmony mop up the mesh and put it onto their cause computer, iPod, or blank CD. It all started in 1999 with the creation of Napster. Napster introduced a subversive new idea that was to forever change the way pack horizon ab by symphony colleague to peer file sharing. Peer to peer file sharing, often abbreviated as simply p2p, give ups different users change over shouts, with no regards for copy rectify infringement.Now the most popular way to take harmony off the Internet is to use one of many YouTube to mp3 transposeer sites These sits allow you to copy a URL from a YouTube video and paste it into a text box on the YouTube to mp3 site which impart then convert the video into a medicament file that is downloaded onto your computer. Many people have different feeling about utilise these new YouTube to mp3 sites and using fourth-year sites similar to Napster. Either way, using sites like that is simply victorious melody off the web at no cost to oneself. I provide go on to defend the idea that illicitly downloading music is stealing.Illegally downloading music is no different then going into a store and taking a CD right off the shelf and walking out without paying. I will base my defense on the concept that the artists and the people mingled in the music industry have rights. Whenever a song is downloaded off the Internet illegally it is a violation of the artists and the people entangled in the music industrys rights. My first premise is that artists and people in the music industry have the right to be correct for their gravid train. Most artists dream to comprise it big one solar day and be paid for the songs that they write and sing.When a person puts in the hard work that it takes to make it to the top they should be compensated for their efforts. However, the artists do non make the music and hit records all on their own. There atomic number 18 many people behind the scenes that c ontri stille to the do of albums. For example thither are the people who control the audio equipment and run the recording studio. Everyone involved in the music industry has the right to be compensated for the work that they have done. It is non right for someone to essential go to work, make a product, and then have someone else take it free of charge.My number premise is that illegally downloading music is a form of stealing. Taking something that does non belong to you is against the law. Taking someone thing that has a known bills value and not paying one cent is down right stealing. One credible analysis by the Institute for Policy origin concludes that global music piracy causes $12. 5 billion of economic losses every year, 71,060 U. S. jobs lost, a loss of $2. 7 billion in workers earnings, and a loss of $422 million in tax revenues, $291 million in private income tax and $131 million in lost corporate income and production taxes.So not only are revenues are being a ffected by this music theft alone jobs are being stolen away as well. most people feel that the artists do not deserve all of the capital that it costs to purchase one of their albums or even a integrity song off of iTunes. When you see pictures, videos, and interviews of music artists they do not waitress or sound like they are struggling to get by. Now-a-days artists are making profits off of country and worldwide concert tours. nigh are even paid for personal appearances. Others have teamed up with mixed brand names and started endorsing their products while being paid to do so.To the total person it does not feel like taking songs off the Internet is actually affecting the artists themselves. If these famous artists are living the good feel it should not matter that the average Joe saves a few dollars and downloads music off the internet. To contour the argument that artists have other ways of making currency I will approach the issue in two ways. eldest of all stealin g is stealing. Taking something that does not belong to you is wrong and will forever and a day be viewed as wrong. It does not matter what is being stolen or whom it is being stolen from.Second of all, as I have mentioned earlier, the artist are not the only people involved in the creating of songs and albums. As the Internet grows and the long number of illegal downloads grows with it peoples jobs are shrinking. Less and less artists will be able to make music if the up and comers are not making any money to live off of. If new artists are laboured to find other ways of making money their music passage may never take off. If the number of people making music decreases so will the need for so many behind the scenes people.Overall illegally downloading music off the Internet is what it is, stealing. These actions not only affect the artists but so many more people that we do not always consider. Some feel that it is ok the take music from these famous artists but if it continues less and less music will be created, causing the noble percentage of unemployment to only grow larger. When you steal from someone you are using him or her as a means to an end. No one should be used as a means to an end, especially when it comes to his or her livelihood.

Ethical issues Essay

in like manner Newman used a correlation to interpret the findings from his study and found a relationship between undefended space and levels of crime. Correlations cannot show cause and effect, thitherfrom other causes of these findings cannot be ruled out(a). One other possible business relationship may have been that the different estates compared by Newman were simply in luxuriously or low crime areas, or that policing tactics of the areas was different.However in contrast Brower et al (1981) used interviews to try and establish how people felt about areas of defensible space. Interviews are a good way of obtaining plentiful and detailed data, however unlike Newmans data which was factual (recorded crime figures) interview data is qualitative and needs to be interpreted by the seeker. Inevitably the way this is done may be influenced by the seekers views and thusly turned. In addition to this, as in the research by Mercer, there are issues relating to the honesty of people interviewed and providing socially acceptable responses to be considered.The research by Ley was an observation and therefrom, as in Smiths observation, this research could be argued to have greater ecological validity than research victimization laboratory methods, however there are problems again of observer bias affecting what is recorded. Also this study used institutionalised delinquents as participants and therefore it is difficult to generalise the results to any other situations, although the findings do have implications for institutions.honorable issues may be particularly relevant in this study as carrying out observations of institutionalised participants may be a breach of their good to withdraw from the study. It could also be argued that if the observations were carried out by a researcher their presence may have affected the behaviour, on the other paw if video cameras were used covertly there may be a problem in ensuring that all behaviour was observed, i n addition to the honorable issues mentioned.Designers and architects could use the research mentioned to ensure that working areas meant for males and females have varied sizes in order to take account of different gender needs for space. When calculating housing estates architects need to ensure that the semi public areas are defensible in that they are overlooked and have markers to suggest ownership. They should also take barriers and fenced areas around homes and use plants and foliage as markers.In institutional convention it would seem important to use design to clearly mark out areas in order to try and create established boundaries and rationalize ill will caused by disorderly space use. It may be possible to take on specific time slots for prisoners to use semi public areas to help reduce any aggression caused by dominance of most desirable areas.

Discrimination Essay

The desire towards improvements and modifys is stimulated by a particular case or scenario. It motivates and inspires us to persevere and change the outcome for the better. For my part, it started in August 2002 when two teenaged transgender teenagers were brutally murder in the District of Columbia. The murders occurred in the Southeast section of DC an field of study plagued by random violence, extreme poverty, and often defeated residents. This instigated my passion for armed service and creating ways to fight for these peoples rights.It is through this that I want to express my conception to pursue a degree in public interest law. As a DC native, to some extent, Ive been desensitized to violence. Local news move advertise violence almost hourly. I listen to Breaking intelligence having to do with multiple killings and robberies daily as a marketing stopcock used to increase ratings, and ultimately ad revenues. However, this case was the one that bear me the most because of my encounter with the victims a few hours before the incident. I had introduce with these people during a popular event.While I made it home safely, I didnt know that the victims were being shot multiple times a terrible massacre and execution at the dark streets of Southeast Washington. Realizing the mendmness of the issue, I went to AUs GLBTA Resource and convinced the director to deliver a campus candle vigil to commemorate the victims. The vigil was attended by over 500 AU students and residents of the DC Maryland and Virginia areas. The culmination of the event was a speech given by Brett Pearsons DC Police master(prenominal) of the Gay and Lesbian Liaison Unit.However, I felt that this action was unequal to(predicate) to address the issue I needed to be involved more. Also, my interrogation showed that there is an alarming increase in the number of hate crimes misadventure in Washington D. C. This applies to individuals who identify themselves as Gay, Lesbian, Bisex ual, & Transgender. Moreover, there is a horrible trend wherein majority of victims are people of color (black or latino), at a lower place 30, usually impoverished, and most of these crimes are not investigated as hate crimes. With these I made an important decision in my life I valued to take law and enlist people who engage in much(prenominal) actions.With my Juris Doctorate degree I plan to practice law with the sole purpose of eradicating inequality and violence such as this. Both indoors institutions like the US Military who prescribe discrimination through legislative means and in larger society where discrimination and hate dwell as a result of stereotypes, lack of education, and non-exposure. Similarly, I wish to take in equal opportunities among workers in the institutional level while at the akin time clamoring for the removal of social standards that are prejudicial in nature. I can accomplish this by legal work and cases I work into.I believe attorneys can be the engineers of social change if severally one is willing to meet the challenges a fact I am determined to accept. In the future, I wish to participate and be associated with a federal or local government agency helping to prosecute criminals who engage in such crimes. Likewise, if possible, I wish to be add my efforts for a watchdog organization such the National gay & lesbian task force, Human Rights Campaign, or the ACLU I believe. These institutions are vital in the process of creating accountability and justice among these minorities within American society.Without these types of organizations, there wont be a check and balance in the societal system which can help legitimize the actions of individuals to pursue violent acts of discrimination and prejudice. In the end, with your acceptance, I can be able to make a difference in society as well as these groups. I know that the incident in DC was no coincidence. It was my calling to be of service to these people. With this de gree, I can be able to exercise the fancy that everyone is under the law. I feel that this is my legacy my own sculptural relief in effecting social change.

Factors Contributing to Christopher Columbus’ Voyage

Christopher capital of Ohio departed Spain on August 3, 1492 for his first excursion. He stopped at the Canary Islands for a final restocking and left there on kinfolk 6. He was in command of three ships known as the Pinta, the Nina, and the Santa Maria. On October 12, they first sighted land which turned out to be a small island in presend-day Bahamas (Minster, 2012a). There are various factors which watchd Christopher capital of Ohio to undertake this voyage. He had a in-person worry and determination to observe a faster more efficient route to the East Indies. exp whiznt Ferdinand and Queen Isabella financed his voyage because they were interested in material wealth and converts for Spain. The m period in which capital of Ohio lived overly had a great influence since the Renaissance period was a time of exploration and finding immature meanings for existence. Christopher capital of Ohio examined mostly southward voyages of the Portuguese into the Atlantic and Africa and t hought that one could withal sail west and ultimately reach India.This belief was also influenced by accounts he read from the travel accounts of writer Marco Polo. Columbus whitethorn have conceived this idea of sailing west to reach Asia as premature as 1481 in a correspondence which he sent to Italian Scholar, Paolo del Pozzo Toscaneli. Apart from proving his theory of traveling westward, Columbus also had a personal interest on the voyage. When King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella approved his voyage, Columbus would constrain viceroy of all the lands located and he would keep a one-tenth of all values found (Thinkquest, 2013).When Columbus sighted land, he believed he had reached the Asian islands as is evident in his self-promoted letter which he sent to the King and Queen of Spain. When Columbus developed his theory of sailing westward across the Atlantic in search of a shorter route to Asia, he first submitted his proposal in 1484 to John II, King of Portugal. He precious th e Portuguese to finance his expedition across the Atlantic. The King passed on the beseech to the august Maritime Commission who rejected Columbus since other ships were already traveling to Africa (Ucalgary, 1997).Columbus then moved to Spain where he petitioned Queen Isabella. The Royal Commission first rejected his plan but he assay once more in 1492 when it was approved. Spain had its own interest in the voyage since it had a desire to spread Christianity and claim new land to stretch its empire. They were also interested in the Northwest Passage which Columbus claimed since it would depart them to gather new sources of wealth such as spices, silk and gold. Christopher Columbus was born(p) in 1451 which was the period of the Renaissance.It was a time marked by regenerate interest in art, culture and exploration. As mentioned before, countries such as Spain and Portugal cute to expand their empires and spread Christianity to new lands. This was the perfect period for Colum bus to research new lands since people began to chase secular pursuits and there was greater wildness on human potential and human progress (Tammy, n. d. ). Knowledge became the account to understanding the world that surrounded human beings and Columbus voyage would forthwith help in increasing this thirst for knowledge.During this period there was change magnitude trade and commercial activity, growth of cities and towns and the expansion of learning all aided in fueling Columbus desire to initiate his voyage. After land on the island which he named San Salvador on his first voyage, Columbus sailed to other islands including Cuba and Hispaniola. Columbus returned to Spain in March of 1493 and although his first voyage was almost a failure, he lost his biggest ship and did not find the promised route to the west, the Spanish Monarchs were actually intrigued with his discoveries.Spain financed three more voyages for him with the aim of establishing permanent colonies (Minste r, 2012b). As can be seen there are various factors which contributed to Columbus voyage, including his personal interests, Spains interest of expanding its empire and religion and the time period in which his voyage took place. Today, Columbus is remembered for both the good and the bad since he discovered the Americas but also opened the doors for exploitation, subjugation and slavery.

My Summer Vacation Essay

The dream summer holiday of every exclusive serene comes matchless magazine in a life-time. In the summer of 2014 I had merely completed my first twelvemonth of college and my parents wanted to take me some where Ill ever retrieve for my profound work. I had no hint of what their purposes were or what to even anticipate from them. My parents had invited merely about all of our stopping points relations and household friends to come along and observe the juncture with us. Majority of those that came brought gifts and bills to promote me to make good. Of class this made me the most thrilled individual in the universe. because I non merely had household and friends over to observe scarcely they besides spent the dark over for the trip my parents had put unitedly to take us on.The undermentioned forenoon my Father woke everyone up at 2oclock in the forenoon to acquire situated and hit the route for the drome by 3oclock. How dry they had everything planned out from the bathroom cl ip to the lay in the vehicles. But yet each and every clip I pampered the inquiry in their caputs as to where we were traveling they neer answered me. Anxious to have it away I was. so one began believing of all the possibilities of the topographic points theyd see traveling. I began to acquire drowsy from how early I woke up and all the wonder running through my venas.After acquiring to the airdrome at 4oclock our flight eventually left at 645am and we arrived at our finish into Fort Lauderdale. Florida. We collected our bags and was on our journey one time once more this clip it had felt as if we had been driving everlastingly. I had woken up to shrieks and shouting from about everyone around me. yet I still had no hint as to what was traveling on. As my pa was pursuance to happen a parking topographic point I started to take in out the window in hunt of any hints that could assist me weigh out where precisely we were. Once we pasted the entryway my eyes blew up when I saw t he words Carnival Cruise Lines.After seeing all the commercials with all the celebrations that occur. all the celebrated people that appear in individual. the astonishing games and household activities. the theater and nutrient that was on board. this was so the topographic point I would give the universe to travel to. When asked by my parents how I liked my gift. I became lost for words and could merely smile for how bright and filed with joy I was.

Market Research on Chutney

Research on the chutney labor * Study of salad accompani handst (2007) revealed that Mayonnaise and salad cream compete with pickles, chutney and enjoy as meal accompaniments and as sandwich ingredients. Ethnic products such as mango chutney, premium products such as organic beetroot and bladder fucus that ar marketed as essential barbecue components atomic number 18 growing in popularity. There is a good opportunity for salad accompaniments to step into the breach with diversity in flavours that satisfy consumer demand for exotic flavours to brighten up mealtimes. Mintel (2009) has interrogationed into attitudes towards nutrient prepa ration and found an increase of plenty that want to try upstart recipes 7 points between 2005 and 2009 Rising concerns about obesity eng while institutionalise the spotlight on the nations diet as neer before. Not only confined to adults, obesity rates are roofy to increase among both boys and girls if current trends continue, with to a g r eraseer extent than one in louvre girls forecast to be classified as obese by 2010. This has solemn implications for their future health. * The English provender company EPC is rolling out a raw-fashioned product range and packaging, based on the theme of innate ingredients. The launch leave alone include seven chutney made exploitation the traditional open-pan cooling method. There will be four new flavours, including anxious chilli & red pepper chutney and Moroc brook spiced chutney and new recipes for three existing flavours including ploughmans plum chutney and caramelised red onion chutney. The range will retain its trademark lame jar but new clear labels will allow consumers to cop the raw(a) colour and texture of the products. The use of script typeface will give an artisan feel to the range, while tamper tags will book serving suggestions and natural ingredients will be stamped around the lid. our research revealed a growing demand for products that taste as good as home-made victimisation natural ingredients and traditional cooking methods says marketing director Grahame Wright. Were woof a gap in the premium mainstream market EPC says the ? 31M chutney family unit has grown by 4% in the past 12 months and is targeting Christmas shoppers. * In July 2007 marketing director Kerr Arthur said that consumer tastes are becoming ever more sophisticated. People are beginning to interpret beyond classic flavours and are also using the products in different ways such as for sandwich filling, dip and barbecue ingredients. Whit this in mind we resolute to extend our range of speciality chutneys and have developed these tasty new recipes to make al fresco dining more memorable this pass ( fire-roasted pepper chutney with capers and sweet caramelised onion chutney with orange) * Ribblesdalecheese (2011) have through a pure tasting session on their chutneys and had a small questionnaire for their subjects. These are the results that they * 1) How do you rate it out of 10? * 2) Would you change anything? * 3) Would you eat it with cheese? * 4) Would you buy it?Results of the men Tasters Rank Type Total stigma clean piddle 1 love apple & Chilli drear cxlv 8. 0 2 Sweet Chilli Hot 149 7. 9 3 personnel casualty onion marmalade barmy 111 7. 8 4 onion 1 Savoury 79 7. 3 4 tasty onion Spicy 82 7. 3 4 Spiced apple Sweet 67 7. 3 4 Piccalilli Spicy 66 7. 3 4 apple 1 Sweet 55 7. 3 5 Pineapple Sweet/Spicy 66 6. 8 5 Banana Spicy 66 6. 8 6 Pear & peach tree Sweet 66 6. 7 Apple 2 Sweet 51 6. 1 8 Tomato 2 Savoury 36 6. 0 This is quite interesting, because ifyou take the top tail fin chutneys, then men prefer savory chutneys, and preferablya undersize spicy and hot. The sweeter chutneys appear at the lower end of the table. So what do women like, is this any different? Results of the Women Tasters Type Total score Average Score 1 Red onion marmalade Savoury 120 8 2 Piccalilli Spicy 92 7. 7 3 Sweet Chilli Hot 61 7. 6 Pear & Apricot Sweet 99 7. 6 3 Apple 1 Sweet 76 7. 6 4 Pineapple Sweet/Spicy 90 6. 9 4 Tomato & Chilli Spicy 83 6. 9 4 Spicy Onion Spicy 62 6. 9 4 Onion 1 Savoury 55 6. 9 5 Spiced Apple Sweet 81 6. 8 6 Banana Spicy 78 6. 5 7 Apple 2 Sweet 82 6. 3 8 Tomato 2 Savoury 41 5. 9 Well, looking at this, it would appear that women do have slightly sweeter tooths than men, and that men and women do have different tastes.Whilst CaramelizedRed Onion Chutney and Sweet Chilli Jam appears in both men and womens top 3, women far prefer Piccalilli to men and men far prefer the spicy Tomato & Chili to women look at the Pear and Apricot it is fourth in the womens preferences and 3rd to bottom in the mens interesting, hey? And another question to wantwho buys chutney? Men or women? There are many conclusions that can be drawn from this piece of maneuver, but for us, it helps to identify what we are press rel ease to make.This includes Sweet Chilli Jam, Tomato & Chilli, CaramelisedRed Onion, Piccalilli, Apple, Pear & Apricotand we have a couple of new ones up our sleeve And in flake you wondered, here is the combined list of men and womens results. What Both Men & Women Tried Total Score Average Score 1 Red onion marmalade 230. 5 7. 9 2 Sweet Chilli 210 7. 8 3 Apple 1 131 7. 7 4 Tomato & Chilli 227. 5 7. 6 5 Piccalilli 158 7. 5 5 Pear & Apricot 165 7. 5 6 Pineapple 156 7. 7 Spicy Onion 144 6. 9 7 Banana 144 6. 9 8 Spiced Apple 147. 5 6. 7 8 Apple 2 133 6. 7 9 Onion 1 134 6. 4 10 Tomato 2 77 5. 9 * Pickles, chutneys and relishes are failing to capture the attention of jr. shoppers. While for older generations chutneys have been a flavoursome accompaniment to a range of meals, with some creating their own concoctions, younger consumers most likely photograph is when theyre dipping their poppadums into a spot of mango chutney . Bainbridge (2007) believes that November and December are the best-selling months for the pickles, chutneys and relishes sector, as shoppers stock up on accompaniments to their turkey leftovers and ham sandwiches. Dorset population research Pring (2011) laid out interesting demographics research on the Dorset area * Dorset is just sized, small sparse population (159 per sq. km compared with 362 for E&W on average. * Life expectancy in Dorset for both men (80. 3 years) and women (82. 8 years) was higher than the England average.Largest elderly population of all the shire counties (29% of retirement age 19% for England and Wales) * Population is increasing due to net inward migration * Average house prices are among the highest in the UK outside London * But, Earnings are below national levels * Unemployment is low * But, there is little manufacturing * Approx. 10,500 people work in residential/social care (7% of employees in employment) * More people work in social care than dire ctly in unemployed and tourism * Median gross annual pay in Dorset was ? 24,927 (South westernmost ? 24,922, England ? 26,165) * The latest unemployment rate for Dorset is 4. % (South West 6. 0%, England 7. 6%) * Dorset lowest quartile affordability ratio (house price to earnings ratio a higher ratio manner less affordable housing) was 10. 3 (South West 8. 2, England 6. 7). References Pring, A. , 2011. The demographics of Dorset and its effect on stamp out of Life Care online viewed on 13 November 2012. Available from http//www. piperhub. com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Dorset-Demographics-and-EOLC-Andy-Pring. pdf Bainbridge, J. , 2007. field sixth sense Pickles, chutneys and relishes Changing tastes hinder growth online viewed on 10 November 2012.Available from http//www. prweek. com/uk/news/771632/Sector-Insight-Pickles-chutneys-relishesChanging-tasteshinder-growth/? DCMP=ILC-SEARCH Bainbridge, J. , 2008. Sector Insight Pickles, Chutneys and relishes online viewed on 10 Nove mber 2012. Available from http//www. prweek. com/uk/features/862382/Sector-Insight-Pickles-Chutneys-relishes/ Ribblesdalecheeses, 2011. Chutney Tasting Results II. In Ribblesdalecheeses Blogonline. 20 February 2011 viewed on 5 November 2012. Available from http//ribblesdalecheese. wordpress. com/2011/02/20/chutney-tasting-results-ii/ Food Manufacture, 2007.Chutney snap sophistication online viewed on 5 November 2012. Available from http//www. foodmanufacture. co. uk/NPD/Chutneys-offer-sophistication Food Manufacture, 2011. Chutneys go natural in time for Christmas market online viewed on 05 November 2011. Available from http//www. foodmanufacture. co. uk/Ingredients/Chutneys-go-natural-in-time-for-Christmas-market Mintel, 2007. Salad Accompaniments UK August 2007 online viewed 11 November 2012. Available from Mintel Mintel, 2009. Media and Food (The) UK October 2009 online viewed on 11 November 2012 . Available from Mintel

The Fundamental of Fred

Title The fundamental of FRED Abstract In the teaching argona of digital flesh for master degree, there is iodin brand-new assignment method has come which is FRED. FRED-Item inspires school-age childs to create their own idea into their production. There are four grammatical constituents in FRED-Item which are cover every factor that should appeared in one scholar assignment. FRED-Item contains umteen digital types beside common essay. Students will consider not only the topic for FRED, still too the best fashion that advise achieve their ideas in their works. beyond that, FRED-Item has added some features that are required in design works, such(prenominal) as copyright and references.Keywords FRED, FRED-Item, Thinking, Learning, Digital Design, Student, Assignment, Reference, Keyword, Education, University Content In modern society, computer engineering is goodly used by universities on the earth. With it will come m each new programs and courses that pupil merchantman choose, which includes the digital design. Digital design is a sunrise special field in 21st century. It is a first task that how to rightly directs students to understand and learn this special field (Keane. 2012). ground on these two backgrounds, FRED, a new educational and interactive evolution, is born. What is FRED-Item?This interrogation may become the most asked question for everyone who was the first time to realize FRED-Items. To be specified, FRED nitty-gritty Freely Relational Educational Design(Keane, 2013, p. 1). It designed and developed at heart Griffith Universitys master degree of digital design teaching area (Keane, 2012). Or to be more precise, FRED is made up with four lay outs subroutine1 contains gentle, FRED-Ref, keywords and creep the basic information. Part 2 is near message. Part 3 includes references, appendix, and succeeding(a) investigations. And Part 4 shows audiences investigation via Q&A and/or critical analysis.Superfici onlyy, FRED-Item s looks like a kind of assignment. However, the information that FRED cigaret be provided is more than what the words show. FRED encourages students to create their own thinking and study production. In the following content, it will make a more pauseicular analysis for FRED. PART 1 As what you see from the previous content, FRED s part 1 contains basic information. First one is the title. The quality of title decides whether it can read authors opinion effectively or not. In FRED-Item, title should be clean and powerful as it can direct FREDs theme immediately.The next one is keywords. Keywords identify a documents index entry. In keyword selection, determine what your content state is the most important thing to do, because it can help you to facilitate your keywords faster. For example, in digital design area, keywords can be 2D/3D animation, tear website and so on. To highlight these keywords that makes analyseers find your items quickly and easily. Thirdly, abstract is considered a part and parcel of FRED. An abstract, viewed as the summary for article, is the first part that audiences will read before the body text.It can present a high-level overview within hundreds of words. Last one is FRED-Ref. As a special group of words, FRED-Ref requires student use some course discipline words in their assignments, which is FRED-Item. And the lawsuit to do this is to access the FRED-Reference world (Keane, 2013). PART 2 There is no doubt that the content part is the major aspect of FRED-Item. With the development of cognizance and technology, digital design has become more and more easily to look up and remember (Batiha & Khaldoun, 2006), so the type of FRED content is varied as well.The first of all is the oldest and traditional academic essay, and then a wide variety of derivatives appeared, such as HTML, PDF and video. HTML is short for Hypertext Markup Language, is the main way that creating web pages. Many webpages we saw from Internet are makeup by HTML makeup language ( suppose 1). PDF is anther method that displays images and texts in one file. PDF (Figure 2) means Portable Document Format (PDF Reference, 2006, p. 33). It contains legion(predicate) unalike elements, such as image, text and video. Not only that, students can choose any media formats to express their ideas and works.In other words, all digital files will be welcomed to create FRED-Items. Formats are not only the carrier that to show public the information, provided also become an express vector that describe designers own worlds. Besides this, the content of FRED-Item should be related to the course with students critical thinking. It is hard to create a FRED-item that follows all requirements. Especially there are so many different media types that can be used. Student should consider every possible corporeal that may contain in their FRED works, design the best object and turn up to lecturers.Of course, a good conclusion is necessary for every FRED-I tem because it can display your outcomes in a logical method. Figure 1 Griffith University Webpage Figure 2 PDF example image PART 3 The third part focuses on the reference, appendix and investigation of Q&A. Student will use APA direction of reference to list their bibliography. APA style, which is the contraction of American Psychological Association (APA formatting and entitle Guide, 2013, para. 1) was established in 1980s by several favorable scientists (About APA Style, 2013).In modern scholar life, many learners and writers have adapted APA style. cecal appendage is a list of books and other works that student used for their FRED-Items. Part 4 Furthermore, investigate via Q&A is another significant part for part 4. In this section, people will see the reflection that is according to FRED-Item. This measuring rod is crucial for the whole work of FRED as it can report students their abstract thinking. There are lots of types that Q&A can be in, such as short answer and mu ltiple choices. And all questions and answers demand extensive structures that explain the key to the questions.Speaking for the numbers of questions, there is not an absolute postulation for this but all questions are needed to relate to the what kind of questions that student has set (Keane, 2013). Copyright There is still one thing that should be mentioned at here, which is copyright. When students use some works, which are belonged to other people, they should identify any valid notice or accredit in their FRED-Items. As a designer, the factors of original and creative are never be copied and encroached. Reference Griffith University Webpage, n. d. image Retrieved from http//www. riffith. edu. au PDF example image, n. d. image Retrieved from http//blogs. adobe. com/pdfdevjunkie/defaultPortfolioCoverSheet. jpg Keane, D. (2012). Freely Relational Educational Design. Retrieved from http//fredcdn. com/2013s1/7047qca/week02/readings/fred-davidkeane_2ndinternationalsem_teaching_grad students_2012k. pdf Keane, D. (2013). 2013s1-FRED-format-v20130225a. Retrieved from http//fredcdn. com/2013s1/2013s1-share/2013s1-fred-format/2013s1-fred-format-v20130225a. doc Adobe Systems Incorporated. (2006), PDF Reference, sixth edition, version 1. 23, p. 33.Retrieved from http//www. adobe. com/devnet/acrobat/pdfs/pdf_reference_1-7. pdf Batiha, K. & Khaldoun, A. (2006). Digital art and design. Leonardo Journal of Sciences, 5(9), 1-8. APA Formatting and Style Guide. (2013). Retrieved from http//owl. english. purdue. edu/owl/resource/560/01/ About APA Style. (2013). Retrieved from http//www. apastyle. org/about-apa-style. aspx Investigate via Q&A 1. How many formats that can be used in FRED-Items? There are so many methods that can be used in FRED-Items. Formats shall include but not be limited to HTML PDF Video TutorialIn other words, all digital files will be welcomed to create FRED-Items. 2. Which kind of reference styles that FRED accepts? APA style, which is the abbreviatio n of American Psychological Association (APA Formatting and Style Guide, 2013, para. 1) 3. How many and what split that made up with FRED-Items? FRED is made up with four parts Part1 contains title, FRED-Ref, keywords and abstract the basic information. Part 2 is about content. Part 3 includes references, appendix, and future investigations. And Part 4 shows audiences investigation via Q&A and/or critical analysis.

Effects of Television Commercial Repetition

ledger of Consumer Research, Inc. The Effects of Television Commercial repeat on cognitive solvent and mental object Acceptance Author(s) George E. Belch Reviewed work(s) initiation daybook of Consumer Research, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Jun. , 1982), pp. 56-65 Published by The University of sugar pressure sensation Stable URL http//www. jstor. org/stable/2488937 . Accessed 17/08/2012 0648 Your use of the JSTOR memorandum indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http//www. jstor. org/page/info/ approximately/policies/terms. jsp .JSTOR is a non-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of guinea pig in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to add crossingivity and facilitate cutting forms of scholarship. For more than information virtually JSTOR, please contact emailprotected org. . The University of Chicago Press and daybook of Consumer Research, In c. be collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, retain and extend access to Journal of Consumer Research. http//www. jstor. org The Television Commercial repetition on Cognitive Response and Message Acceptance Effects ofGEORGEE. BELCH* The cognitive featuate of de nonerepeat be examined by consideringthe impactof tercet levels of TV commercial-grade picture at prove withina atomic subdue 53-hour program. posturesand procure patternswere not affected by marrow repeat, although cognitive solutions became more ostracize as vulnerability frequency change magnitude. The blood surrounded by cognitive chemical reactions and the gist acceptance flyers was relatively constant crossways the ternary mental picture levels. effectuate of ingeminate picture show to a telling communication guard long been of evoke to social psychologists and marketers.However, research interrelateing the effects of persuasive put crosswise repeat on cognitive actiones has been limited in both social psychology and marketing. In social psychology, much of the repetition researchhas been performedin contexts thatdo not involve communication. For example, Zajoncs (1968) theory of classical ikon suggests that a persons space toward a stimulant is imperiously relatedto pictorial matter frequency(an effect Zajonc attri exceptedto the pleasantness associated with hearing an increasinglyfamiliar stimulus).However, mere ikon theory whitethorn befool limited relevance to the attitudinal effects of persuasive mental object repetition,as this sit knock off applies primarilyto primary nonassociative stimuli, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as nonsense syllables or Turkish alphabet characters. cogent subjects tend to be more complex stimuli and, in the compositors case of advertising cores, the transportion is generally on objects or ideas presentedin the pass on ratherthan on the advertizementitself. With the exception of a battleground by Cacioppo and Petty (1979), the cognitive and emotional effects of retell pic to persuasive communicationshave generatedsurprisinglylittle researchin social psychology.Attemptsto determinethe effects of advertising gist repetitionhave appe atomic number 18dfrequentlyin the marketingliterature (Craig, Sternthal, and Leavitt 1976 Grass and Wal- The lace 1969 Mitchell and Olson 1977 pecker and Sawyer 1971 Sawyer 1973 Silk and Vavra 1974 Winter 1973). However, most researchinto the effects of advertisingrepetition has foc utilise primarilyon subsequentlymath circularssuch as retract, attitude,and acquireintention,ratherthanconsideringthe underlying processes that might shape and determine reaction to an advertising heart next nonuple characterisations. piece of music knowledge of the repetition function for a persuasive put across with respect to these take variables is important, the cognitive effects of subject repetition must excessively be consideredif insight is to be gained in unders tandinga recipientsreactionsto a center fol modesting multiple exposures. The purpose of this investigation is to try come out the effects of repeated exposure to a persuasive communication by examining the impact of video recording receiver commercial repetition on cognitive processing.Cognitive chemical reaction measures (Greenwald 1968 Petty, Ostrom, and Brock 1981 Wright 1973) as advantageously as handed-down issuance measures such as recall, attitude, and purchase intention atomic number 18 use to examine the effects of multiple centre exposures on recipients. This carry overly examines changes in the relationship of cognitive reply mediators to measures of centre acceptanceresultingfrom multipleexposuresto a commercial message. RELEVANT lit *George E. Belch is AssistantProfessorof Marketing,College of Business Administration,San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182.The author wishes to acknowledge the monetary support provided by a doctoraldissertationgra nt from the AmericanMarketingAssociation and by researchgrantsfrom the MarketingScience Instituteand the University of California, Los Angeles. Appreciationis also expressed to plenteous Lutz and James Bettmanfor their comments on an earlierversion of this manuscript and to two anonymousreviewers for their insightful comments and recommendations. The effects of advertising repetition on impression measures such as attitude and purchase intention have been examined in a numberof studies.Winter(1973) appoint that exposure to the commercials littleen the distance betwixt attitudes toward the advertised post and the ideal brand. However, diminishingreturnswere found, since the greatestamountof attitudechange occurredduringthe premiere two exposures. Also, exposure had a strongeffect simply on individualsinitially unfamiliarwith the advertisedbrand 56 ? JOURNAL OF CONSUMERRESEARCH* Vol. 9 0 June 1982 EFFECTSOF TV mercantile REPETITION and it was positively related to brand fam iliarity for the relatively new brandonly. Ginter(1974) found that either overall attitude change nor brand preference was affected by the numberof message exposures. Null effects of advertising repetition were also found in a schooling by Mitchell and Olson (1977) repetition of two types of print ads had no effect on belief strength, attitude, or purchaseintention. Several studies have examined the effects of multiple exposure in junction with varied advertising appeals. Ray and Sawyer (1971) found that repetitionof six soft-sell nongrabber advertisementsproduced increases in purchase intention, dapple intention was not increasedby repetition of hard-sell grabber ads.Similar results were found in-a field of operations by Silk and Vavra (1974), who examined reactions to hard-sell and soft-sell radio commercials. Gorn and Goldberg (1980) examined the effects of repeated commercialexposure on eight- to ten-year-oldboys by variable the numberof commercials seen in the context of a half-hourprogram. Subjects viewed the commercials eitherone, triple, or five beats. However, some of the multiple-exposure agree subjects viewed the same commercialrepeatedly,darn otherssaw a differentcommercial for the new brand individually time.Gorn and Goldbergfound that moderateexposure ( collarrepetitions)resultedin the upliftedest level of brandpreference, providedthat the same commercial was not seen severally(prenominal) time. 57 Cacioppoand Petty (1980) well-tried the viability of the twostage cognitive repartee toughie in two other repetitionexperiments. In the offshoot experiment, the cognitive resolution measureand a persistingmeasureof attitudechange (taken one week later) were affected in the curvilinear musical mode suggested by the two-factor position.In the second experiment, they predicted-and found-an interaction betwixt exposure frequency and the nature of the assertions apply on a persisting attitudechange measure. Strong argumentbased messages became more persuasive with repetition weak argumentmessages became less persuasivewith repetition and novel messages became more, then less persuasive with repeatedexposure. Calder and Sternthal (1980) measured cognitive rejoinders after commercials for two productsone product and was unfamiliarto the participants one was well known.They found that increased frequency of exposure led primarilyto more total thoughtsfor the unfamiliarproductand to an increasein prejudicial thoughtsfor the well-knownproduct. TheoreticalAccounts of RepetitionEffects While several theoreticalexplanationshave been offered for repetitioneffects, the one that appearsto be most congenial for advertisingmessage repetition is some form of Berlynes (1970) two-factor theory. Berlyne proposed a nonmonotonic inverted U-curve relationship mingled with familiarity and liking.According to Berlyne, two separate and opposing psychological processes, positive habituation and tediousness, operatesimultaneously. pe remptory habituationis mistakable to a reduction in result competition exposure results in a reductionin arousal collect to uncertaintyand conflict and indeed increases liking. Tedium also increases with exposure and results in a less pleasurablefeeling toward the stimulus. Berlyne suggests that the relative strengthof each factorvaries as a functionof exposureto the stimulus, with the habituationprocess having the greaterimpact on affect initially, temporary hookup ennui and disliking occur at high exposure levels.Stimulus complexity and rate heterogeneity slow the positive habituationprocess thus tedium occurs at higher exposurelevels for complex, variedstimuli and at a relatively low frequency for simple, nonvaried stimuli. An extension of Berlynes two-factor theory was proposed by Stang (1973, 1975), who argued that repeated to exposureprovidesmore opportunity learnaboutthe stimulus and that because this learning is rewarding, positive affect results. However, continued r epetition beyond that unavoidable for initial learningleads to boredomor satiation, and repeated exposure in conclusion produces ban affect toward the stimulus.A similar explanationfor repetitioneffects was proposed by Cacioppo and Pettys (1979) two-stage attitudemodification model. They argue that repetition of the message to providesrecipientswith more opportunity elaboratecognitively upon message content and to realize the approbative implicationsand cogency of the argumentsused in the mes- Repetition and Cognitive Response McCullough and Ostrom(1974) examined the effects of repeatedexposure by having subjects view five similar ads that used the same raw material appeal, but differed in the order and phrasing of the message arguments.Cognitive rejoinders were measured adjacentlyafter each exposure to the advertisements. They found that repetition resulted in a significantpositive effect on cognitive solvent activity, as subjectslisted more positive thoughtsand fewer ostra cise thoughts with repeatedexposure. Cacioppo and Petty (1979) examined the effects of repeating messages that were either consistent with or contraryto recipients initial attitudeon cognitive reply activity. They found that agreementwith the message position increased and then passd as exposure frequency increased.The cognitive response patternfollowed a similar curvilinear relationship as golden thoughts showed an increase followed by a decrease, while counterarguments showed a significant decrease followed by an increase. Analysis of the cognitive response measures also revealed that the counter-attitudinal message evoked a greaternumber of topic-relevantthoughts and fewer neutralor irrelevant thoughts than the proattitudinal message. Cacioppo and Petty interpretedthese results in terms of a two-stage attitudemodificationprocess.Accordingto this model, repetitionof the message providesmore opportunity for cognitive elaborationupon the specific argumentsand realizationof theirf avorableimplications. At high exposure levels, however, tedium and/orreactancelead to an attack against the message by the receiver. 58 sage. However, in the high exposure trails, it is very likely that tedium and/orreactancewill develop, jumper cable to a decline in affect. Sawyer (1981) has suggested that Berlynes two-factor theory is consistent with results concerning the repetition effects of advertising.Sawyer suggests that advertisements and other persuasive messages in contexts of obvious manipulative intent whitethorn elicit a majority of defensive responses-such as counterarguments and source derogations-at the outset. Once expressed, these defensive responses whitethorn dissipate and allow other, more objective evaluations and associations to occur. However, high exposure levels would ultimately result in satiation and shun reactionsto the message.The starting signal question of sake is whetherthe inverted Ucurve predictions offered by Berlynes two-factor theory and Ca cioppo and Pettys two-stage attitude modification process model occur with multipleexposuresto a television commercial. Most of the studies extant have only examined outcome measures of potency, providinglittle insight into the cognitive processing that underliesthese reactions. The studies that have utilized cognitive response measures have produceddivergent results, primarilybecause of the methodologicaland proceduraldifferences among them.It will be difficult to arrive at all generalizationsconcerning the effects of persuasive message repetition on cognitive processing until more empiricalevidence is produced. The firsthypothesisto be tested in this studyconcernsthe effects of commercialmessage repetitionon cognitive responseand message acceptance Hi The favorabilityof message acceptanceand cognitive responses to a television commercial increases with moderate levels of exposure, then declines following high levels of exposure. THEJOURNAL CONSUMER OF RESEARCH curring during the first few exposures to it.Krugmans (1972) notion of only three message exposures cosmos competent to stimulatea bargain foring close is relevanthere. According to Krugman, the very first exposure (defined as actualattentionby the consumer)is dominatedby a What is it? type of response, whereby the message recipient attemptsto define and understandthe advertisingstimulus and to determine whether the message is of any use or interest. Krugmansuggests that much of the needed reduction in response competition occurs during this first exposure and that the second exposureevokes a more evaluative and personal What of it? reaction, which determinesthe messages ultimate ability to persuade. If any meaningful response occurred earlier, the trinity exposure then acts mostly as a reminderto the recipient. The third exposure is also the beginning of disengagement or withdrawalof attentionfrom the task. Krugmansuggests that more than three exposures to a message essentially repeat earlier exposure effects. While no direct test of Krugmans conjecturehas been conducted, there is indirect evidence that is relevant.A study by Krugman(1968) of eye movement explorationof print ads indicated that peak effectiveness occurred after two or three exposures, while Grass and Wallaces (1969) work with CONPADD response indicatedthat from two to 1 four exposures be optimal. Otherevidence consistentwith Krugmans notion comes from a study by Goldberg and Gorn (1974). Also, Cacioppo and Pettys (1979) engendering that topic-irrelevant ideation increased as exposure frequency increasedsuggests that the importantprocessing of a message takes place during initial exposures. This review suggests that the strengthof the relationship amongst cognitive responses and message cceptancemeasuresshould increasefrom low to moderateexposurelevels, since more enlarge and evaluativeprocessing will occur as message recipients become familiar with the commercial message. At higher exposure levels, ho wever, the tedium and/or reactance associated with message satiation would inhibit and/or intercede with subsequent informationprocessing activity and resultin a weakeningof the relationship surrounded by cognitive response and message acceptance. Cognitive processing at higher levels of exposure whitethorn consist ideationmore thanof relevantprocessing of topic-irrelevant and evaluation of the message arguments.The following predictionsconcerningthe effects of television commercial message repetition on the relevancy and mediatingrole of cognitive responses will be examined H2 The frequency of topic-irrelevant ideation increases as exposure to a television commercial increases. CONPADD (ConjugatelyProgrammedAnalysis of announce)measures attentionto commercialsby utilize an operantconditioningprocedure whereby subjects operate either a foot or hand turn of events in orderto receive the video and audio portionsof an advertisement.The subjectseffort thus becomes a measure of in terest and attentionto the message in either the audio or video mode. Effects of Repetition on the MediatingRole of Cognitive Response Also of concern in this study are the effects of message repetitionon the mediating relationshipbetween cognitive responses and message acceptance. The issue of interest here is whethercognitive responseselicited afterhigh levels of message exposure interfere emotional reactionto the message. Most studies of repetition effects have focused on dependentmeasures, such as recall, attitude, and purchase intention.In these studies, the cumulativeeffects thatresult from repeatedexposure to the message may be capturedby use these outcome measures. However, this may not be the case for cognitive response measures. The detailed processingthat truly determinesthe message recipientsreactionto the message may take place duringinitial exposure to the advertisement. Theorizingconsistent with this position has been offered by several researchers. For example, L eavitt (1974) has suggested a strong effects hypothesis, which suggests that the effectiveness of an ad depends on the events oc-EFFECTSOF TV COMMERCIAL REPETITION H3 The strength of the relationshipbetween cognitive response and message acceptance measures increases with moderatelevels of exposure, then decreases at high levels of exposure. 59 thoughts. 3 by and by completingthe cognitive responsetask, the subjectswere asked to everlasting(a) a programevaluationform and a set of postmeasuresconcerning issues dealt with in the program. After completing these measures, subjectswere asked to respondto dependentmeasuresconcerningmessage acceptance and reception.Two dependentmeasures of message acceptancewere used in this study attitudestoward utilise the new brandof toothpasteand purchaseintentionsfor the new brand. Subjects attitudeswere measuredon four semantic differentialscales (good-bad, wise-foolish, favorable-unfavorable,beneficial-harmful). Subjects responses to the four scal es were averaged to arrive at the attitude hold used in the analyses. Intentionto try the new brand of toothpaste was measuredon three semantic differential scales (likely-unlikely, probable-improbable, possibleimpossible). The purchase intention measure used in the analyses was calculated by averagingthe three scales.Two measuresof message receptionwere employed. An un helprecall measurewas takenby askingthe respondents to write down as much as they could rememberaboutwhat was said in the commercial. The recall score was then formed by counting the number of correct claims for the productlisted by the subject. The assisted recall measureconsisted of six multiple-choicequestions aboutspecific points in the commercial. METHOD Overview The info for this study were collected as part of a laboratoryexperimentexaminingthe effects of advertisingmessage structure and repetition on cognitive response and message acceptance(Belch 1981). A 2 x 2 x 3 betweensubjectsdesign was used with type of message (comparative or noncomparative), message-sidedness (one- or twosided), and repetition(one, three, or five exposures) as the factors. Commercialsfor a new, fictitious brandof toothpaste were produced to work as message stimuli for the study. The basic text for the four commercialsis shown in the Appendix. The data used to test the repetitionhypotheseswere compiled by combiningthe resultsfor the four treatment groups at each of the three exposure levels.There were no significant interactionsbetween the message structure factorsand exposure frequencyfor the dependentvariablesof interest. Subjects and Procedure The sample consisted of 260 persons recruitedfrom two churchgroups in the Los Angeles area. Data collection was bed cover over 10 evenings during a two-week consummation. Upon arrival at the research setting, the subjects were accustomed a brief statementconcerningthe reasonfor theirpresenceand were then randomly assigned to one of the three experimental treatments being used during that session.One hundred subjects were assigned to both the one- and the three-exposureconditions, while 60 subjectswere assigned to the five-exposurecondition. The smaller jail cell size in the five-exposure condition was collectable to cost limitations in attaining additionalsubjects. were readto the subjectsinformingthem that Instructions they were participatingin a researchprojectevaluatingthe content of television programmingand that they would be asked to evaluate an episode of Quincy. The subjects were also told they would be asked questions about the commercials.The subjects perfect the set of premeasures, which included demographicquestions, a television backwash profile, and premeasuresconcerning issues dealt with in the programthe one-hourprogramcontainingthe stimulus commercial(s) was then shown. Immediatelyafter the program ended, the subjects were read the cognitive response instructionsand were devoted two minutesto list their Categorizationof C ognitive Responses The cognitive response classification evasion used in this study included three categories of thoughts product/mesevaluations,and sage-relatedevaluations,repetition-related evaluairrelevant thoughts.The product/message-related tions included the cognitive response categories of counterargument, supportargument,source derogation,and curiosity thoughts as defined by Wright (1973), as well as the categories of simple dissaffirmationsand simple affirmations describedby Beaber (1975). An additionalcategory, source bolstering, was also used. This categorizationis the of positive reproduction source derogation. evaluations included any thought that Repetition-related addressedthe fact that the commercialwas seen more than one time in the program.The use of the repetition-related categorizationmay be useful in analyzing message recipients reactionto multiple message exposures duringa short time period, such as a one-hourprogram. Other studies of repetitionandcognitive re sponse(CacioppoandPetty 1979 Calderand Sternthal1980 McCulloughand Ostrom 1974) have not distinguishedthoughts reflecting reactions to the message per se from thoughtsthat might be relatedto multiple exposures to the same message.The final cognitive response category was the irrelevantcategory, which in3The cognitive response instructionsused in this study requested the subjects to list the thoughtsthat occurredto them while viewing the commercial about the product and their reactions during the commercial to what was said about the productby the advertiser. 2A complete descriptionof the method employed in this study is available elsewhere (Belch 1981). In the interest of brevity, only a summary will be presentedhere. 60 cluded those statements that did not reflect any relevant evaluation of the advertisingmessage or of the advertisement itself.A three-judgepanel was used to code the cognitive response protocols. The judges were given operationaldefinitions of the three response cat egories and were trainedin the applicationof these definitions until each had a good of understanding the coding scheme and coding task. The basis for the final rating of each cognition was a modal ratingof the threejudges. Interjudge reliabilities,calculated for each response category separately,rangedfrom 0. 69 to 0. 95. THEJOURNAL CONSUMER OF RESEARCH skeletal frame AND NEGATIVE MEANNUMBERS POSITIVE OF COGNITIVE RESPONSESFOR EACHLEVEL REPETITION OF 2 (1. 77) Total prejudicial 1. 5 (1. 32) (1. 04) Total Product/Message (1. 15) related to Negative 1 (. 96) Total Positive RESULTS The first hypothesis concerns the effects of commercial message repetitionon the message acceptancemeasuresof attitude and purchase intention and on the cognitive response measures. The mean attitudinal scores for the one-, three-, and five-exposureconditions were 3. 87, 4. 11, and 3. 77, while the mean purchaseintentionscores were 3. 24, 3. 60, and 3. 33. An depth psychology of variance performedon the message acceptancemeasures showed no significanteffect of repetition for either attitude or purchase intention, F (2,257) = 1. 6 and 0. 89, respectively. The bureau for the numberof favorableand unfavorable thoughtsgeneratedby subjectsin each of the threeexposure conditions are graphedin the Figure. 4 An analysis of variance revealed that the increase in the numberof invalidating thoughts across the three levels of repetitionis significant, F (2,257) = 9. 93, p < 0. 001. Pairwisecomparisons,using a Scheffe test, indicated that the difference in minus thoughts was not significant between the one- and threeexposureconditions, but was significantbetween the threeand five-exposure conditions (p < 0. 5). The Figure also shows that favorablethoughtsremainedrelatively constant across the three exposure levels. An analysis of variance for the favorable thoughts measure was nonsignificant,F (2,257) = 0. 69. The resultspresentedabove are not supportiveof the first hypothesis. The messa ge acceptancemeasures(attitudeand purchase intention) did not show the inverted U-curve relationshippredictedby Berlynes (1970) two-factortheory and Cacioppo and Pettys two-stage attitude modification model.The cognitive response results also fail to support the first hypothesis because negative thoughts increased across the three levels of exposure, while positive thoughts remainedrelatively constant. One possible explanationfor the increase in the number of negative thoughts across the three levels of repetitionis that multiple exposures to the message within the one-hour programmay have resultedin satiationandthe development The favorable and unfavorable thoughts measures were derived by combining those cognitive responses that were positive and negative in valence, respectively.Thus, favorable thoughts representthe sum of all source bolstering, support arguments, and simple affirmations. reproving thoughts representthe sum of all counterarguments, source derogations, simple dis affirmations,and repetition-related negative comments. l .v. 3 ( 53) (. 63) (. 63) I 0 I ,I 1 5 NUMBER OF EXPOSURES 3 of reactanceby the subjects. This negative reactionto message repetition could be expressed through negative repecontition-related thoughtson the partof multiple-exposure dition subjects.To determinewhether the increase in negative thoughts across the three levels of repetition was due to the repetition-relatedthoughts produced by the message recipients, these responses were omitted from the composite of unfavorableresponses and the effect of repetitionon the number of product/message-related negative thoughts was examined. The means for the numberof negative product/message-relatedthoughtsare graphedin the Figure. A one-way analysis of variancerevealed that these differences in negative product/message-related thoughts were not significant, F (2,257) = 0. 5. Thus, the increase in negative thoughtsacross the three exposure levels was due primarily to the recipients n egative reactions to message repetition, ratherthan to negative evaluations of message content. Hypothesis two concerns the effect of multiple message exposure on the generation of topic-irrelevant thoughts. Topic-irrelevantthoughts were defined as those responses that do not represent an evaluation of the message arguments or of the advertisementitself. The mean numberof irrelevantthoughts for the one-, three-, and five-exposure levels was 0. 53, 0. 34 and 0. 3, respectively. The differences in irrelevantthoughtsacross the threeexposurelevels were not significant, F (2. 257) = 1. 99. Contraryto the second hypothesis, it appearsthat message recipientsin the conditions did remainactive in attending multiple-exposure to the commercials, ratherthan tuning them out and producing cognitions that were unrelatedto the message. consanguinityof Cognitive Response to Message Acceptance To examine the relationshipof the cognitive responses generatedby subjects at the various exposure levels t o attitude and purchase intention, several compensatoryEFFECTS OF TV COMMERCIALREPETITION hedgeI RELATIONSHIPOF COGNITIVERESPONSE AND marrow RETENTION MEASURES TO MESSAGE ACCEPTANCE BY EXPOSURE LEVEL whiz exposure Attitude computer simulation 1 Purchase intention lead exposure Attitude Purchase intention Five exposure Attitude 61 Purchase intention Y2(SA+SB+SAf) Y. (CA SD + SDf) + Model 2 .327b .323b .481 b ,345b .491 b .236c Y2(SA+SB+SAf+RRP) Y. (CA. + + SDf+ RRN)8 SD Retention Aided recall Unaided recall .327b .323b .468b ,339b .522b .258c . 021 . 086 .065 . 129 .014 . 010 .028 . 159 .001 . 121 .009 . 081 SAf = Simple AffirmationsSDf = Simple Disaffirmations RRP = Repetition Related Positive RRN = Repetition Related Negative SA = Support Arguments CA = Counterarguments SD = seeded player Derogation SB = Source Bolsters. bp < 0. 01 Cp < 0. 05 weighting models (cf. Wright 1973) were demonstrable from the cognitive responses. These models, which are shown in hedge 1, are based on an underlying assumption that message recipientsprocess cognitive cues in a mannersuch that opposing cues linearly balance each other. These compensatory models yield a measure of net directionalimpact of the cognitive mediators.Model 1 includes the product/message-related cognitive cues using the difference between the amountof positive ideation and negative ideation engaged in by the message recipients as the predictor of message acceptance. Model 2 adds the repetition-related thoughts to the model and incorporatesall of the relevant cognitions into the cognitive response index. The relationships between the message retentionmeasures(unaidedand aided recall) and attitudeand purchaseintentionwere also examined. Simple regressions were performedusing each model as a predictorof the message acceptancemeasures.The results of these analyses, which were performedseparatelyfor each exposurelevel, are shown in Table 1. This table shows that the cognitive response models are sign ificantly related to the message acceptancemeasuresacross all three exposure conditions. However, the aided and unaided recall scores are not relatedto either attitudeor purchaseintentionat any of the exposure levels. As can be seen in Table 1, the relationshipof the cognitive response models to the attitudinalmeasure of message acceptanceis strongerin the three-exposurecondition than in the single-exposurecondition, as predicated.However, the differences in these correlationsfor the two exposure levels are not statistically significant (t = 1. 32, p < 0. 10). 5 Table 1 also reveals that the magnitudeof the relationshipbetween the cognitive response models and attitude does not show the hypothesizeddecline between the 5Comparison these correlationcoefficients was made using the folof lowing test statistic three- and five-exposure conditions, but remainsrelatively constant. The relationshipbetween the cognitive response models and purchase intention across the three exposure levels is also shown in Table 1.The correlationsdo not show the predicted increase between the one- and three-exposure conditions. There is an attenuationin the correlationsbetween the three- and five-exposure conditions however, these differences are not significant(t < 1). These results fail to supportthe hypothesizedchanges in the relationshipbetween cognitive and message acceptance across the three exposure levels. Table 1 also indicatesthat differences exist in the relationshipsbetween cognitive response and the attitudinalmeasure of message acceptance and between cognitive response and the purchaseintention measure in the multiple-exposureconditions.There is an attenuationin the correlationof cognitive response to message acceptance when purchase intention, ratherthan attitude, is the message acceptance criterion. Wright (1973) found a similar attenuationbetween cognitive response and a behavioralintentionversus an attitudinal measureof message acceptance. The attenuationfound in this study may be due to the fact thatbehavioralpatternsfor a productsuch as toothpasteare likely to be well developed. Thus, favorable or unfavorablecognitive reactionsto the message may be related to affective position toward the new brand, but would not unavoidably impact on intentionto buy the new brand.I + Vm 1 Vm I/ 1 lNm-3 l/2 In l/2 In 1 I + Vf 1- Vf 3 t= Nf- where Vm and Vf denote the correlationcoefficients for each group and Nm and Nf denote the size of each group. This statistic makes it possible to test the equalityof two correlationcoefficients using a t test (Kleinbaum and Kupper 1978). 62 THEJOURNAL CONSUMER OF RESEARCH sage argumentsand then developing an attitudetowardthe new brand, but ratherwere using the retainedargumentsto support a preformed affective position.This explanation may be especiallyplausible in a low-involvement advertising situation(which one might argue was the case in this study) where global affect, rather than attribute specific information, providesthe basis for consumerevaluationand decision making (cf. Olshavskyand Granbois1979 Wright 1976 Zajonc 1980). The two perspectives regarding the mediating role of cognitive response suggest different causative patternsamong the message acceptance measures and cognitive responses following multiple exposure to a message.The first explanation argues for the traditionalmediatingrole of cognitive responses, whereby the proceed of causal effects originates with repetitionand moves throughcognitive responses that mediateattitude,which in turnmediatespurchaseintention. The competingexplanationsuggests that the flow of effects originates with repetition and moves successively through attitude and purchase intention, which in turn influences cognitive response. This causal flow suggests thatcognitive in responses, particularly the multiple-exposure conditions, are the result of preformedaffect towardthe new brand.To examine the two competing explanationsof the relationships among the variables, a testing of substitute model forms was undertaken. The tenabilityof each causal model was tested by attemptingto reproducethe master key correlationmatrix among the four relevant variables (repetition, cognitive responses, attitude, and purchase intention). Examination of the reproducibility of the veritable correlationmatrix provides evidence in supportof a proposed model configuration also allows for a comparison and of other alternativeflows.A techniquedeveloped by Simon (1957) for testing simple linear flows of condition was used to examine the relationshipamong these variables. This techniquefor testing a proposed causal flow was used by Lutz (1978) in examining the relationshipsamong beliefs, attitude, and behavioral intention-a problem similar to the presentone. Simon developed a precise set of predictionsfor the magnitudeof correlationbetween nonadjacent pairsof variables in the hypothesized flow of causation, based on observed correlationsbetween adjacent p airs of variables.Specifically, the predicted correlationbetween any two nonadjacent variables is equal to the product of all the pairwise correlations between adjacent intervening variables. For example, in the traditionalcognitive response causal sequence (repetition cognitive response-> attitude-> intention), Simons model would predictthat the simple correlationbetween repetitionand intentionwould be equal to the simple correlationsof repetitionand cognitive response multiplied by the simple correlationof cognitive response and attitudemultipliedby the simple correlationof attitude and intention.Comparisonof predicted and actual correlations provides a measure of fit for the theoreticalexplanations being applied to the data. While this mode of analysis cannot prove that a particularcausal sequence is correct, it is useful for testing competing explanations. Cognitive Responses Mediatorsor Productsof Message Acceptance? A basic assumptionin using the cognitive response approac hto analyze communicationeffects is that the spontaneous thoughts generated by the message recipients causally mediate affective reactions to a persuasive message.The assumptionthat cognitive responses conduct and influencethe formationof attitudesand intentionshas been made in most cognitive response studies and has been directly tested in several investigations (Cacioppo and Petty 1979 Osterhouse and Brock 1970 Petty and Cacioppo 1977). This study assumed that cognitive response cues generated by the message recipients mediate the effect of repetition on message acceptance,since subjectsin the multipleexposure conditions had the opportunity to become acquainted with the message arguments and had plenty of time to elaborate cognitively upon them. Thus, the responses generatedby the multiple-exposurecondition subjects would be based on the cogency of the message arguments and their reactionsto these arguments,ratherthan on a general, overall impressionof the productand/orcommercia l. Evidence in supportof this position is offered by the strong relationshipbetween cognitive response and attitude in the multiple-exposureconditions. There is, however, an alternativehypothesis to the argument that cognitive responses mediate the effect of repetition on message acceptance.It may be that the thoughts producedby the message recipientsare not really mediating acceptanceof the message, but ratherare a reflectionof the recipients affective position toward the product and/or commercial. Several studies (Tesser and Conlee 1975 Tesser and Cowan 1977) have shown that the opportunityfor thought leads to a polarizationof attitudeswhereby affective position becomes more extreme in the initial direction. onditionsmay Message recipientsin the multiple-exposure have formed an attitudetowardthe new brandafter one or two exposures, while further exposure to and reflection upon the message argumentsmay have led to attitudepolarization. Thus, the cognitive responsesproducedby these subjects may have been a reflection of a previously developed and polarized attituderatherthan mediatingmessage acceptance,the recipientsresponses may thus have offered cognitive justification for their affective position.This alternativeperspective suggests that the multipleexposure condition subjects were not processing the mes- 6Thereis evidence that the message argumentswere retainedmore in the multiple-exposureconditions than in the single-exposureconditions. The cell means for the unaidedrecall measurewere 1. 70, 2. 33, and 2. 48, while the means for the aided recall measure were 2. 22, 2. 74, and 3. 20. An analysis of varianceperformedon the receptionscores showed thatthe effect of repetitionwas significant for both measures, F (2. 257) = 7. 01 and 11. 25, respectively (p < 0. 1). Pairwise comparisons of the cell means, using the Scheffe test, indicatedthat both recall measuresshowed a significant increase between the one- and three-exposureconditions (p < 0. 05), but not between the three- and five-exposurelevels. REPETITION EFFECTSOF TV COMMERCIAL TABLE 2 INTERCORRELATIONSOF VARIABLES IN HYPOTHESIZED FLOW OF EFFECTS Cognitive response 63 TABLE 3 PREDICTIONS AND DEGREES OF FIT FOR RELATIONSHIPS AMONG NONADJACENT CAUSAL VARIABLES Degrees of fit essential Expected Variable Repetition Attitude . 013 . 429 Purchase intention . 31 RCR->Att->PI 1. Repetition 2. Cognitive response 3. Attitude 4. Purchase intention .022 .310 . 692 13 12r23 -. 013 rl2r23r,. r24= r23r, r14= .031 . 310 RAtt->PIl-CR -. 009 (-. 022)(. 429) . 006 (-. 022)(. 429)(. 692) . 297 (. 429)(. 692) In performingthis analysis, the cognitive response variable was operationalizedby using the compensatoryindex derived from model 1 (Table 1). Repetition was assigned a value of 1, 3, or 5, dependingupon exposurelevel. Table 2 shows the observed simple correlationsamong the four variablesof interest.Each variableis numberedto facilitate of interlingual rendition Table 3, which shows the actual and expected correlations among nonadjacentpairs of variables for the two competing causal flows previously described. To contrast the degrees of fit of the two models, a total discrepancy score was computed from the correlations shown in Table 3. Total discrepancy was operationalized as the sum of the absolute differences between predicted and actual correlations. Table 3 shows that the degree of fit was best for the traditional model, in which cognitive responses mediate message acceptance.The total discrepancyfor this model was 0. 055, while the total discrepancy for the competing model was 0. 278. In additionto the two models previously considered, alternativeorderingsof the cognitive response and message acceptance measures following message repetition were also examined. However, none of these models performedas well as the basic cognitive-responses-as-mediatorsmodel. 13 r12r23 r14 =r2r23r34 r24 =r23r34 .031 -. 022 . 429 -. 015 (-. 022)(. 692) -. 005 (-. 022)(. 69 2)(. 310) . 214 (. 692)(. 310) intention aRepetitionrCognitive response-Attitude-oPurchaseDISCUSSION The results of this study are not supportiveof Berlynes (1970) two-factor theoretical account of repetition effects nor of Cacioppo and Pettys (1979) two-stage attitudemodification process model. Neither attitudesnor purchaseintentions were affected by the level of advertisingexposure. This is consistent with the results of otherrepetitionstudies that have failed to find a significant main effect for repetition on these outcome measures. The patternof results found for the cognitive response measures was also inconsistent with theoretical expectations.The number of negative product/message-related thoughtsdid not decline between the one- and three-exposure conditions, as had been predicted. The negative thoughtsvariablealso failed to parallelthe resultsfound for the attitude and purchase intention measures for the oneand three-exposureconditions. This inconsistency, which was also fo und by Calder and Sternthal(1980) and, to a lesser degree, by-Cacioppoand Petty (1980), suggests that there is not always a direct correspondencebetween cognitive response and outcome evaluations.The second stage of two-factortheory and the two-stage attitudemodificationprocess, which predicts a decrease in affect and an increase in negative thoughts due to tedium and reactance, was partially supported. Neither attitudes nor purchase intentions showed a significant decline between the three- and five-exposure conditions. However, the significant increase in negative repetition-related thoughts between the three- and five-exposure conditions suggests that reactance to the multiple message exposures did become more pronouncedin the high exposure condition.The significant increase in repetition-related thoughts across the three exposure levels is not surprising,but it is noteworthy. Past studies of repetition and cognitive response have not directlyrecognized the possibility thatrepeti tion-relatedcognitions might occur as a result of excessive exposure to a message instead, they have assumed that the recipients reaction to message repetition impacts on more traditionalcognitive response variables, such as or counterarguments favorablemessage-relatedthoughts. From a strategicperspective, these findings have implications for the scheduling of adverising messages, particularly over short time periods. While the exposure levels used in this study were high for a one-hour time period, they are not exclusively inconsistent with actual media schedvalue uling practices. The results suggest that no short-term is gained from addedexposures. Media schedulesthatresult in high levels of message exposure in a limited time period run the risk of alienatingthe viewer and may not represent Althoughcognitive response measures were not taken in the study by Gom and Goldberg (1980), they did find negative repetition-related reactions to be putting surfaceplace Observationof the ch ildren suggested that when exposed to the same commercial three or five times, they became annoyedby the repetitions. Remarkssuch as Oh no, not again or not anotherone were common . . . (p. 424). 64 the most effective expenditureof media budgets.However, ratherthan focusing only on immediate postexposure reactions, it would be helpful to consider the effects of multiple message exposure over longer time periods, in order to determine the perseverance of positive or negative responses. Crandall,Harrison,and Zajonc (1975) found that the negative effects of tediumfrom repeatedexposuresmay be only transitory,whereasthe positive effect is permanent. Stang (1974) also found satiationeffects to be impermanent a small measurementdelay was more likely to show positive effects of exposure than an immediate measurement.Research similar to that of Cacioppo and Petty (1980), which uses slow measures of cognitive response and the attitudechange, is needed to fully understand effects of messag e repetition. The use of delayed response measures in examining repetition effects is discussed in detail by Sawyer and Ward (1977). The results of this study are supportiveof other investigations suggesting that cognitive responses mediate postmessage attitudesand purchase intentions. Moreover, this studyoffers furthersupportfor the viabilityof using thought verbalization data in studying communication effects.While the cognitive response models were capable of explaining a significantamountof the variancein attitudeand purchase intention, the aided and unaided recall measures did not show a significant relationshipto message acceptance despite the increase in recall scores across the three levels of exposure. These findingsare consistentwith other studies which have found that stimulus learningis not necessarily related to affective reactions (Cacioppo and Petty 1979 Greenwald1968 Wright19,73).These resultssupport the argumentthat cognitive cues generatedby the message recipient, ratherthan message arguments, are the primary mediatorsof message acceptance. ReceivedMay 1981. Revised November 1981. 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